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Lesson 01 min readWhat is kana?
Kana is the umbrella term for Japanese's two phonetic scripts: hiragana and katakana. Unlike kanji, which represent meaning, each kana character stands for a single sound - usually one mora, the short, evenly timed beat that Japanese speech is built from (a vowel on its own, a consonant plus a vowel, or the standalone ん).
Because kana are purely phonetic, they can spell out any Japanese word or sentence entirely on their own, without using a single kanji. That's exactly how Japanese children first learn to read and write, well before they start memorizing kanji.
Kana didn't start out as its own script, though. Japan had no native writing system, so in the Nara period (7th–8th century) scribes began borrowing Chinese characters purely for their sound, ignoring what those characters meant, to spell out Japanese syllable by syllable. This method became known as man'yōgana (, まんようがな), named after the Man'yōshū, Japan's oldest surviving poetry anthology, compiled using it in the 8th century.
Over the next couple of centuries, man'yōgana was worn down into faster, simpler shapes. Heian-period court women wrote it in flowing cursive strokes that settled into hiragana, while Buddhist monks and scholars abbreviated other man'yōgana characters down to a single distinguishing fragment as reading shorthand - the origin of katakana. Both scripts were only standardized into the fixed sets used today in 1900, after centuries of competing variant forms.
Hiragana and katakana cover the exact same set of sounds - they're two different ways of writing the same pronunciations, chosen depending on the type of word being written.
Lesson 0.52 min readWhat is romaji?
Romaji (, ろーまじ, "Roman letters") is Japanese written out using the Latin alphabet - the same letters this sentence is written in - instead of kana or kanji. It isn't a script Japanese people write in day to day; it's a stand-in, used whenever Japanese needs to be readable by someone who doesn't know kana or kanji yet.
That's exactly the job it's doing throughout these lessons: the small letters under every kana character (a, ka, shi, tsu...) are romaji, there so you can read the pronunciation before you can read the character itself. Outside the classroom, romaji shows up on road signs and station names for travelers, in passports and on business cards, and in dictionaries and search boxes where typing kana isn't convenient.
It's also, in practice, how almost everyone types Japanese. Type ka on a phone or computer set to Japanese input and it becomes か - this app's own keyboard tool works exactly the same way, converting the romaji you type into kana as you go, no special input method required.
There's more than one system for spelling Japanese in romaji. The tables in these lessons use Hepburn romanization (, へぼんしき), the system most common internationally and recognizable by spellings like shi, chi, tsu, and fu. Japanese schools traditionally teach a different system, Kunrei-shiki, which spells some of those same sounds si, ti, tu, and hu instead - both represent identical pronunciation, just different conventions for writing it in the Latin alphabet.
Treat romaji as a bridge, not the destination: it's useful for typing and for getting your bearings early on, but it can't represent Japanese as precisely as kana does (chi and tsu, for instance, hide consonant sounds English romaji has no dedicated letter for), and real fluency means being able to read hiragana and katakana directly. That's exactly what the next lesson covers.
Try the romaji-to-kana converterLesson 11 min readHiragana
Hiragana (ひらがな) is the core script of written Japanese. It's used for native Japanese words, grammar (particles, verb and adjective endings), and any word that isn't written in kanji.
Hiragana grew directly out of sōgana - man'yōgana characters written in a fast, cursive hand - during the Heian period (794–1185). Chinese writing was the prestigious, official script of the era and was taught mainly to men; the court women who were largely shut out of that education wrote in this cursive shorthand instead, which came to be known as onnade, "women's hand." Far from being a lesser system, it produced some of the finest literature of the age, including Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji (c. 1004), often called the world's first novel. For centuries afterward, several different cursive shapes (hentaigana) could still stand for the same sound, since each had been simplified from a different man'yōgana character - it wasn't until a 1900 script reform that Japan settled on one official shape per sound, producing the fixed 46-character hiragana taught today.
It has 46 basic characters, plus variations made with dakuten (゛) and handakuten (゜) marks, small characters for combination sounds (きゃ, しゅ, etc.), and a small っ for doubled consonants. Its rounded, flowing shapes are usually the first characters Japanese learners memorize.
The 46 basic characters (gojūon)
The basic characters are traditionally arranged in the gojūon ("fifty sounds") grid: one row per consonant, one column per vowel (a, i, u, e, o). The ya-row and wa-row are missing a couple of slots - those sounds are simply covered by the plain vowels い and う - and ん stands alone as the only character that represents a consonant sound by itself, always closing a mora rather than starting one. ゐ (wi) and ゑ (we) are archaic characters that fell out of use in modern Japanese.
Voiced sounds: dakuten (゛) and handakuten (゜)
Adding two small strokes (dakuten, ゛) to a character in the k, s, t, or h row voices its consonant: k→g, s→z, t→d, h→b. Adding a small circle (handakuten, ゜) - used only on the h row - turns h into p instead. Both marks only ever change pronunciation, never the base shape of the character.
Combination sounds (yōon)
Any character from the i-column (き, し, ち, に, ひ, み, り, and their voiced forms ぎ, じ, び, ぴ) can be followed by a small ゃ, ゅ, or ょ to fuse into a single mora - きゃ (kya) is one beat, not two separate ones like ki-ya. These combinations let hiragana spell consonant-y-vowel sounds that have no character of their own.
Punctuation and other marks
A few extra characters round out written Japanese: 、(touten) separates clauses like a comma, while 。(kuten) closes a sentence like a period; ？ and ！ borrow the familiar question and exclamation marks. ー (chōonpu) lengthens the preceding vowel and shows up mostly in katakana, and ・ (nakaguro) separates items in a list or the parts of a foreign name. A small っ (sokuon) placed before a consonant doubles it (きって, kitte) - while the small ゃ, ゅ, and ょ shown above never appear on their own, only glued to another character to form a combination sound.
Lesson 21 min readKatakana
Katakana (カタカナ) represents the same sounds as hiragana, but with sharper, more angular shapes. It's mainly used for foreign loanwords (コーヒー, kōhī, "coffee"), foreign names, onomatopoeia, and to add emphasis - similar to how italics are used in English.
Because katakana maps one-to-one to hiragana sounds, once you know hiragana, learning katakana is mostly about memorizing a second set of shapes for characters you already know how to pronounce. It has the same 46 basic characters, voiced dakuten/handakuten forms, small-kana combinations, and punctuation as hiragana, plus a set of small vowels used only in katakana to build extra sounds for foreign words.
The 46 basic characters (gojūon)
Just like hiragana, the basic characters sit in a gojūon grid: one row per consonant, one column per vowel (a, i, u, e, o). The ya-row and wa-row again reuse the plain vowels イ and ウ for their missing slots, and ン stands alone as the only character representing a consonant by itself. ヰ (wi) and ヱ (we) are archaic characters no longer used in modern Japanese.
Voiced sounds: dakuten (゛) and handakuten (゜)
The same dakuten (゛) and handakuten (゜) marks used in hiragana apply here too, voicing k→g, s→z, t→d, and h→b, or turning h into p. ヂ and ヅ are pronounced the same as ジ and ズ (di, du in the app's romanization) and are only used in a couple of specific words.
Combination sounds (yōon)
Attaching a small ャ, ュ, or ョ to a character from the i-column (キ, シ, チ, ニ, ヒ, ミ, リ, and their voiced forms ギ, ジ, ビ, ピ) fuses the two into a single mora, exactly as in hiragana - キャ (kya) is one beat, not ki-ya.
Punctuation and other marks
Katakana shares the same punctuation as hiragana: 、(touten) and 。(kuten) work like a comma and period, ？ and ！ are the familiar question and exclamation marks, ・ (nakaguro) separates items in a list or the parts of a foreign name, and a small ッ (sokuon) before a consonant doubles it (ベッド, beddo, "bed"). ー (chōonpu) is far more common here than in hiragana - it lengthens the preceding vowel in loanwords, as in コーヒー (kōhī, "coffee").
Small vowels for foreign sounds
Katakana has one more trick hiragana doesn't need: small versions of all five vowels (ァィゥェォ), plus a small ヵ and ヶ. Glued after a full-size katakana, they build extra sounds that don't exist in native Japanese but are needed to transcribe foreign words - ウィ (wi) in ウィンドウ (window), ティ (ti) in パーティー (party), or ファ (fa) in ファイル (file). ヶ also appears on its own, read "ka", in certain place names.
Lesson 2.51 min readSimilar kana: hiragana and katakana look-alikes
You already know that hiragana and katakana write the same sounds, with 46 basic characters in each. Many pairs also share a shape, so the hiragana you know can help you remember the katakana, and the other way round. The catch is that some pairs look nothing alike, and others look alike except for one small detail. This lesson sorts all 46 pairs into three groups, so you know when the trick works and when it does not.
The overlap is not an accident. Hiragana grew out of whole kanji written in a flowing cursive hand, while katakana usually kept just one part of a kanji. When a hiragana and a katakana grew from the same kanji, they sometimes end up looking alike: か and カ both come from 加 (か), and り and リ both come from 利 (り). あ and ア, on the other hand, come from different kanji ( and ), which is why they look nothing alike. Sharing a source is a hint, not a rule, and scholars still debate the origins of some kana, so treat the shapes as a memory aid, not as history.
How to use the lists: every pair shows the hiragana and the katakana side by side, with its romaji, a short tip and a label in words for its group. The colours help you scan, but the label always tells you the group.
The three groups
Every pair below carries a label in words, and the groups are also colour-coded to help you scan.
- Almost twins
The two characters look nearly identical: the same shape, with lines that are only a little rounder or straighter. 4 pairs
- Different
Little or no useful resemblance. Learn the katakana on its own and do not count on the hiragana to help much. 25 pairs
Almost twins (4 pairs)
For these pairs the hiragana you already know is almost all you need. Look at how rounded or angular the lines are, and use the surrounding text to tell which script you are reading.
- せhiraganaセkatakanaseAlmost twins
Memory tip: Nearly the same shape: a bar, two uprights and a base. セ is a little more angular, and it is written with two strokes instead of three.
- へhiraganaヘkatakanaheAlmost twins
Memory tip: The same bent line in both scripts. Use the surrounding text to tell which script you are reading.
- もhiraganaモkatakanamoAlmost twins
Memory tip: Two bars and a hooked upright. も is rounder; モ is straighter.
- りhiraganaリkatakanariAlmost twins
Memory tip: Two downward strokes, the right one longer. り curves; リ is straighter.
Same idea, clear difference (17 pairs)
Start from the hiragana you know, then apply the difference described in each row.
Different (25 pairs)
There is no shortcut here. Each row describes both shapes, so you can learn the katakana as a new character.
- あhiraganaアkatakanaaDifferent
No shortcut: あ is a rounded character with a loop; ア is two straight strokes, a bar and a long diagonal.
- いhiraganaイkatakanaiDifferent
No shortcut: い is two curved strokes side by side; イ is a slanting stroke with an upright hanging from its middle.
- えhiraganaエkatakanaeDifferent
No shortcut: え is a curvy character with a tail; エ looks like a capital I: a bar, an upright and another bar.
- おhiraganaオkatakanaoDifferent
No shortcut: お has a loop and a small dot; オ is a cross with a slanting stroke through it.
- くhiraganaクkatakanakuDifferent
No shortcut: く is one bent line, like a <; ク has two strokes: a short slanting stroke and a longer hooked one.
- けhiraganaケkatakanakeDifferent
No shortcut: け has a tall upright on the left, a bar and a curved hook; ケ is a slanting stroke, a bar and another slanting stroke.
- しhiraganaシkatakanashiDifferent
No shortcut: し is one smooth hook; シ is three strokes: two short dashes and a long sweep.
- すhiraganaスkatakanasuDifferent
No shortcut: す has a bar and an upright with a loop in it; ス is two straight, angular strokes.
- そhiraganaソkatakanasoDifferent
No shortcut: そ is one zigzag stroke; ソ is two strokes, a short dash and a long slash (see the note on ソ and ン below).
- たhiraganaタkatakanataDifferent
No shortcut: た is a cross with two short strokes beside it; タ is a slash, a hooked stroke and a small tick.
- つhiraganaツkatakanatsuDifferent
No shortcut: つ is one wide curve; ツ is three strokes: two short dashes and a long sweep (see the note on シ and ツ below).
- のhiraganaノkatakananoDifferent
No shortcut: の is one stroke that loops round; ノ is one plain slanting line.
- はhiraganaハkatakanahaDifferent
No shortcut: は has an upright, a bar and a loop; ハ is two slanting strokes that spread apart, like a roof.
- ふhiraganaフkatakanafuDifferent
No shortcut: ふ is made of four small strokes; フ is one bent stroke, like a 7.
- ほhiraganaホkatakanahoDifferent
No shortcut: ほ has an upright on the left, two bars and a looped stem; ホ is a cross with two small ticks.
- まhiraganaマkatakanamaDifferent
No shortcut: ま has two bars and a looped upright; マ is two angular strokes: a bent stroke and a short diagonal.
- みhiraganaミkatakanamiDifferent
No shortcut: み is a looping curve with a tail; ミ is three short slanting dashes.
- むhiraganaムkatakanamuDifferent
No shortcut: む has a bar, a looped upright and a small tick; ム is a small, triangle-shaped hook.
- ゆhiraganaユkatakanayuDifferent
No shortcut: ゆ is an upright with a rounded loop; ユ is a bent line with a long base, like a コ stretched at the bottom.
- よhiraganaヨkatakanayoDifferent
No shortcut: よ is an upright with a bar and a curl at the bottom; ヨ is three bars joined by an upright, like a backwards E.
- るhiraganaルkatakanaruDifferent
No shortcut: る is one stroke that ends in a small loop; ル is two strokes, like a pair of legs.
- ろhiraganaロkatakanaroDifferent
No shortcut: ろ is one curved stroke, like a 3; ロ is a square box.
- わhiraganaワkatakanawaDifferent
No shortcut: わ is an upright with a rounded sweep; ワ is a short tick and a hooked stroke, like a roof.
- をhiraganaヲkatakanawoDifferent
No shortcut: を has a bar, a slanting stroke and a loop; ヲ has two bars and a long slanting stroke.
- んhiraganaンkatakananDifferent
No shortcut: ん is one flowing stroke; ン is two strokes, a short dash and a sweep rising to the right (see the note on ソ and ン below).
Careful: look-alikes inside one script
Some of the most common mix-ups happen inside a single script. This is only a first warning, not a full course.
Practice
A few quick questions: find the matching character, spot the difference, and decide which pairs are twins or different.
Which is the katakana for へ (he)?
Lesson 31 min readWhat is kanji?
Kanji (, かんじ) are logographic characters borrowed from Chinese, where each character represents a meaning rather than just a sound. Most kanji have multiple possible readings depending on context, and modern Japanese writing mixes kanji with hiragana and katakana in the same sentence.
There are thousands of kanji, but around 2,136 "jōyō" kanji cover everyday use. Beginners often learn a word in hiragana first, then learn the kanji that's normally used to write it.
The 2,136 jōyō kanji
The jōyō (, じょうよう, "regular use") kanji are the 2,136 characters officially designated by Japan's Ministry of Education for use in laws, newspapers, and everyday publications, in a list last revised in 2010. They're taught through the end of compulsory education - the first 1,026 during elementary school, the rest during junior high and high school. Kanji outside this list still appear (in names especially), usually alongside furigana to give the reading, but the jōyō list is what a fluent adult reader is expected to recognize without help.
Want to see the whole list in more detail, with an English meaning for every kanji? Read the full jōyō kanji list blog post.
Try the hiragana-to-kanji converterLesson 3.251 min readKanji stroke endings
Kanji are built from strokes, and a stroke's ending matters as much as its direction. The three common endings are とめ (tome, a firm stop), はね (hane, a hook or flick), and はらい (harai, a sweeping release). They are not three kinds of whole kanji; they describe how particular strokes finish.
とめ is the dead stop: finish the stroke cleanly without a tail. はね is a small bounce or flick at the end after the stroke stops. はらい is a sweep: let the brush release as it moves away, so the end thins and fades out. In handwriting practice, notice the ending your model shows rather than giving every line the same finish.
You do not need to exaggerate these details, and not every stroke has all three. But noticing them makes your writing clearer and closer to standard stroke order—especially when you practice a character slowly before writing it at normal speed.
Lesson 3.51 min readFurigana and okurigana
Furigana (振り仮名, ふりがな) are small kana printed beside kanji to show how they are pronounced. In horizontal Japanese, furigana usually sit above the kanji; in vertical Japanese, they sit to its right. They are a reading guide, not normally part of the word itself. You will often see them in children's books, learner materials, dictionaries, and manga.
Okurigana (送り仮名, おくりがな) are kana written after a kanji as part of the word. In る (たべる, to eat), carries the core meaning and べる is okurigana. Okurigana also show grammar: る becomes ます (たべます) or ない (たべない), while the kanji stays the same.
A quick way to tell them apart: furigana is the small reading above or beside a kanji, while okurigana stays on the normal writing line after it. In る with furigana た above , the tiny た is furigana and べる is okurigana.
Lesson 3.751 min readOn'yomi and kun'yomi
Most kanji have more than one reading. On'yomi (音読み, おんよみ) are Chinese-derived readings, adapted into Japanese over many centuries. Kun'yomi (訓読み, くんよみ) are native Japanese readings that were paired with a kanji because the character matched an existing Japanese word.
A useful first pattern is that kun'yomi often appear in a standalone native word with okurigana, while on'yomi often appear in kanji compounds. For example, is read やま (yama) in (やま, mountain), but サン (san) in 富士山 (ふじさん, Mount Fuji). is ひ (hi, day or sun) in (ひ), but ニチ (nichi) in (にほん, Japan).
These are patterns, not rules to apply mechanically. A kanji can have several on'yomi and kun'yomi, and exceptions are common. Learn the reading together with each word— as にほん, for example—rather than trying to guess a word by combining isolated character readings.
Lesson 41 min readGrammar basics
This lesson covers the handful of particles and verb endings that show up in almost every beginner sentence, as a starting point before diving into the full grammar section.
Word order and particles
Japanese sentences are built subject–object–verb, with the verb always coming last, and they lean on small particles - one or two kana glued after a word - to show what role each word plays, instead of relying on word order the way English does. The topic or subject can even be dropped entirely once it's clear from context, which is why particles do so much of the grammatical work.
Marks X as the topic of the sentence; Y describes or identifies it.
Replaces は when X shares the same property as something already mentioned.
Links two nouns, usually showing X owns, describes, or is associated with Y.
Marks X as the thing the verb directly acts on.
Marks a specific time something happens, or the place something/someone exists.
Marks the place an action takes place, or the tool/method used to do it.
Marks the direction or destination of a movement verb, similar to に.
Connects a complete, closed list of nouns ("and"), or marks who you do something with ("with").
Connects a partial, open-ended list of nouns - implies there's more not mentioned.
Added to the end of a sentence to turn it into a yes/no or open question.
Politeness: ます and です
Most textbooks - and this app's grammar section - start with the polite speech style, built around です (the polite copula, "is/am/are") for nouns and adjectives, and the ます ending for verbs. Swap ます for ません to negate a verb politely, or ました/ませんでした for the past tense. There's also a plainer, casual style used with close friends and family, but polite speech is always understood and is the safer default while learning.
Beyond the basics
These particles and endings appear in nearly every sentence, but they're only the starting point. The full grammar section covers 44 points across JLPT N5 and N4, each with a plain-language explanation, how it's formed, and example sentences with furigana readings.
Browse the full grammar sectionLesson 51 min readDays of the week
Japanese day names follow one dependable pattern. Each starts with a kanji linked to the sun, moon, or one of the five classical elements, then ends with (ようび, yōbi), meaning "day of the week." Learn the seven opening kanji and you can recognize every day at a glance.
| Day | Japanese | Reading | First kanji |
|---|---|---|---|
| Monday | げつようびgetsuyōbi | moon | |
| Tuesday | かようびkayōbi | fire | |
| Wednesday | すいようびsuiyōbi | water | |
| Thursday | もくようびmokuyōbi | wood | |
| Friday | きんようびkin'yōbi | gold | |
| Saturday | どようびdoyōbi | earth | |
| Sunday | にちようびnichiyōbi | sun |
Asking and answering
今日はですか。
きょうは なんようび ですか。 · Kyō wa nan'yōbi desu ka?
What day of the week is it today?
今日は水曜日です。
きょうは すいようび です。 · Kyō wa suiyōbi desu.
Today is Wednesday.
金曜日にを勉強します。
きんようびに にほんごを べんきょうします。 · Kin'yōbi ni nihongo o benkyō shimasu.
I study Japanese on Friday.
Useful shortcuts
In calendars and schedules, the days are often shortened to their first kanji: , , , , , , and . Use the particle に after a day when saying that something happens on that day, as in に (げつようびに, getsuyōbi ni, “on Monday”). (まいしゅう, maishū) means “every week,” so (まいしゅうかようび) means “every Tuesday.”
The long ō in ようび lasts for two beats: yō-bi. In kin'yōbi, the apostrophe shows that ん ends one beat before よ begins; say kin-yō-bi, not ki-nyō-bi.
Type the days on the Japanese keyboardLesson 61 min readTime & Calendar
Calendar vocabulary becomes much easier when you learn it as a set of repeating timelines. Start with the regular number + pattern for month names, then compare the words for previous, current, next, and after next across days, weeks, months, and years.
1. Months
Japanese month names are generally made with the number plus (がつ, gatsu). Three readings need special attention: April is (しがつ), July is (しちがつ), and September is (くがつ). The standard month names are not よんがつ, なながつ, or きゅうがつ.
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 一月 | いちがつichigatsu | January | |
| 二月 | にがつnigatsu | February | |
| 三月 | さんがつsangatsu | March | |
| 四月 | しがつshigatsu | April | |
| 五月 | ごがつgogatsu | May | |
| 六月 | ろくがつrokugatsu | June | |
| 七月 | しちがつshichigatsu | July | |
| 八月 | はちがつhachigatsu | August | |
| 九月 | くがつkugatsu | September | |
| 十月 | じゅうがつjūgatsu | October | |
| 十一月 | じゅういちがつjūichigatsu | November | |
| 十二月 | じゅうにがつjūnigatsu | December |
2. Days relative to today
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 一昨日 | おとといototoi | the day before yesterday | |
| 昨日 | きのうkinō | yesterday | |
| 今日 | きょうkyō | today | |
| 明日 | あしたashita | tomorrow | |
| 明後日 | あさってasatte | the day after tomorrow |
3. Weeks
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 二週間前 | にしゅうかんまえnishūkan mae | two weeks ago | |
| 先週 | せんしゅうsenshū | last week | |
| 今週 | こんしゅうkonshū | this week | |
| 来週 | らいしゅうraishū | next week | |
| 再来週 | さらいしゅうsaraishū | the week after next |
4. Months relative to now
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 二か月前 / 二ヶ月前 | にかげつまえnikagetsu mae | two months ago | |
| 先月 | せんげつsengetsu | last month | |
| 今月 | こんげつkongetsu | this month | |
| 来月 | らいげつraigetsu | next month | |
| 再来月 | さらいげつsaraigetsu | the month after next |
(にかげつまえ) and (にかげつまえ) are two common spellings of the same expression. Here is read げつ as part of the duration counter かげつ, unlike がつ in a calendar month such as (にがつ).
5. Years
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 一昨年 | おととしototoshi | the year before last | |
| 去年 | きょねんkyonen | last year | |
| 今年 | ことしkotoshi | this year | |
| 来年 | らいねんrainen | next year | |
| 再来年 | さらいねんsarainen | the year after next |
See the repeating pattern
| Unit | Previous | Current | Next | After next |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Week | 先週 | 今週 | 来週 | 再来週 |
| Month | 先月 | 今月 | 来月 | 再来月 |
| Year | 去年 | 今年 | 来年 | 再来年 |
Practice
Use the mixed quiz to recognize meanings, readings, kanji, month names, and timeline patterns.
Lesson 71 min readDays of the month
Saying the date in Japanese means combining a number with (day), but the first ten days - along with the 14th, 20th, and 24th - use special irregular readings instead of the regular number pattern. Every other day just follows the rule: number + にち.
The first ten days of the month, plus the 14th, 20th, and 24th, use special native Japanese readings that don't follow any predictable rule - they simply have to be memorized. These same irregular readings are also used to mean "so many days" in general (, ふつか, futsuka, can mean either "the 2nd" or "two days"), which makes them worth learning early.
| Day | Japanese | Reading | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 一日 | ついたちtsuitachi | |
| 2nd | 二日 | ふつかfutsuka | |
| 3rd | 三日 | みっかmikka | |
| 4th | 四日 | よっかyokka | |
| 5th | 五日 | いつかitsuka | |
| 6th | 六日 | むいかmuika | |
| 7th | 七日 | なのかnanoka | |
| 8th | 八日 | ようかyōka | |
| 9th | 九日 | ここのかkokonoka | |
| 10th | 十日 | とおかtōka | |
| 14th | 十四日 | じゅうよっかjūyokka | |
| 20th | 二十日 | はつかhatsuka | |
| 24th | 二十四日 | にじゅうよっかnijūyokka |
The regular pattern: number + (にち)
Every other day of the month is regular: take the Sino-Japanese number and add にち (, nichi, "day"). 20 is the only multiple of ten that breaks this - it's はつか (hatsuka), not にじゅうにち.
| Day | Japanese | Reading | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 11th | 十一日 | じゅういちにちjūichinichi | |
| 12th | 十二日 | じゅうににちjūninichi | |
| 13th | 十三日 | じゅうさんにちjūsannichi | |
| 15th | 十五日 | じゅうごにちjūgonichi | |
| 16th | 十六日 | じゅうろくにちjūrokunichi | |
| 17th | 十七日 | じゅうしちにちjūshichinichi | |
| 18th | 十八日 | じゅうはちにちjūhachinichi | |
| 19th | 十九日 | じゅうくにちjūkunichi | |
| 21st | 二十一日 | にじゅういちにちnijūichinichi | |
| 22nd | 二十二日 | にじゅうににちnijūninichi | |
| 23rd | 二十三日 | にじゅうさんにちnijūsannichi | |
| 25th | 二十五日 | にじゅうごにちnijūgonichi | |
| 26th | 二十六日 | にじゅうろくにちnijūrokunichi | |
| 27th | 二十七日 | にじゅうしちにちnijūshichinichi | |
| 28th | 二十八日 | にじゅうはちにちnijūhachinichi | |
| 29th | 二十九日 | にじゅうくにちnijūkunichi | |
| 30th | 三十日 | さんじゅうにちsanjūnichi | |
| 31st | 三十一日 | さんじゅういちにちsanjūichinichi |
Asking and answering
今日は何日ですか。
きょうは なんにち ですか。 · Kyō wa nannichi desu ka?
What day of the month is it today?
今日は八日です。
きょうは ようか です。 · Kyō wa yōka desu.
Today is the 8th.
テストは二十日にあります。
てすとは はつかに あります。 · Tesuto wa hatsuka ni arimasu.
The test is on the 20th.
Useful notes
ついたち (tsuitachi, "1st") comes from an old word for the first day of the lunar month, which is why it doesn't sound like a number at all. Watch out for the two "yokka"-type readings that aren't actually related: (よっか, yokka, "4th") and (にじゅうよっか, nijūyokka, "24th") both end the same way as (じゅうよっか, jūyokka, "14th") - all three use よっか, the irregular reading of "four days," after their tens digit.
Type the dates on the Japanese keyboardLesson 81 min readIntroducing yourself
自己紹介 (じこしょうかい, jikoshōkai) - the self-introduction - is the first real conversation most learners have in Japanese, and it comes up constantly: a new class, a new job, a first meeting. It follows a set order and leans on a handful of fixed phrases, so once you've assembled yours you can deliver it without thinking.
The running order is reliable: greet, give your name, add a few facts about yourself - age, what you do, where you're from, where you live now - then close with よろしくおします (よろしく おねがいします). Swap the details below for your own and you have an introduction you can reuse for the rest of your life.
| Part | Japanese | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Greeting | はじめまして。 | Hajimemashite. | Nice to meet you. (used only the first time you meet someone) |
| Name | 私はサラです。 | わたしは サラ です。Watashi wa Sara desu. | I'm Sarah. |
| Name (formal) | サラと申します。 | サラと もうします。Sara to mōshimasu. | My name is Sarah. (humble - for work or formal settings) |
| Age | 二十歳です。 | はたち です。Hatachi desu. | I'm 20 years old. |
| Job or major | 大学生です。専攻は日本語です。 | だいがくせい です。せんこうは にほんご です。Daigakusei desu. Senkō wa nihongo desu. | I'm a university student. My major is Japanese. |
| Nationality | アメリカ人です。 | アメリカじん です。Amerika-jin desu. | I'm American. |
| Where you live | 今は大阪に住んでいます。 | いまは おおさかに すんでいます。Ima wa Ōsaka ni sunde imasu. | I currently live in Osaka. |
| Closing | どうぞよろしくお願いします。 | どうぞ よろしく おねがいします。Dōzo yoroshiku onegaishimasu. | Pleased to make your acquaintance. (the standard sign-off) |
Putting it together
はじめまして。私はサラです。
はじめまして。わたしは サラ です。 · Hajimemashite. Watashi wa Sara desu.
Nice to meet you. I'm Sarah.
二十歳です。大学生で、専攻は日本語です。
はたち です。だいがくせいで、せんこうは にほんご です。 · Hatachi desu. Daigakusei de, senkō wa nihongo desu.
I'm 20. I'm a university student, and my major is Japanese.
アメリカ人ですが、今は大阪に住んでいます。
アメリカじん ですが、いまは おおさかに すんでいます。 · Amerika-jin desu ga, ima wa Ōsaka ni sunde imasu.
I'm American, but I currently live in Osaka.
どうぞよろしくお願いします。
どうぞ よろしく おねがいします。 · Dōzo yoroshiku onegaishimasu.
Pleased to make your acquaintance.
Saying your age: (さい)
Ages are the number plus (さい, sai) - (じゅうななさい, jūnanasai, "17"), (さんじゅっさい, sanjussai, "30"). A few numbers contract the way they do elsewhere in Japanese, and breaks the pattern completely: it's read はたち (hatachi), a word of its own, exactly like being ついたち rather than a regular number reading.
Nationality: country +
Attach (じん, jin) to a country name to say you're one of its people: (にほんじん, nihonjin), アメリカ (あめりかじん, amerikajin), イギリス (いぎりすじん, igirisujin), ポルトガル (ぽるとがるじん, porutogarujin). Country names borrowed from other languages are written in katakana, so most nationalities end up as katakana plus that single kanji. To name the country itself rather than the person, use から (kara, "from"): ポルトガルから (ぽるとがるから きました, Porutogaru kara kimashita, "I came from Portugal").
A note on politeness
Everything above uses the polite です／ます style covered in the grammar section, which is the right register for meeting someone new. と is a step more formal than です and is worth having ready for job interviews or business introductions. One habit to unlearn early: は (watashi wa) is usually dropped once it's obvious you're talking about yourself, so サラです alone is a complete, natural sentence.
Write your own introduction on the keyboardLesson 91 min readCounting things in Japanese
Japanese usually counts with a number plus a counter word chosen for the thing being counted. The counter can describe shape (long objects use (ほん)), category (small animals use (ひき)), or unit (minutes use (ふん)). This sounds complicated at first, but a small group of common counters covers most daily situations.
This lesson gives you a dependable fallback, the most useful object and living-creature counters, the pronunciation changes that make forms such as (いっぽん, ippon) and (さんびき, sanbiki), and the separate systems used for people, dates, durations, clock time, months, and age.
Start with the number
Convert a number and practice its kanji
Most counters use the Sino-Japanese number readings below. Build larger numbers from the same pieces: 11 is (じゅういち, jūichi), 24 is (にじゅうよん, nijūyon), 100 is (ひゃく, hyaku), and 365 is (さんびゃくろくじゅうご, sanbyaku rokujūgo). Four, seven, and nine have alternate readings, but よん, なな, and きゅう are normally the safest choices before a counter.
| Number | Kanji | Reading | What to watch for |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 一 | いちichi | Often shortens or doubles the next consonant. |
| 2 | 二 | にni | Usually regular. |
| 3 | 三 | さんsan | Can voice an h-counter to b, as in (sanbon). |
| 4 | 四 | よんyon | Use yon, not shi, with most counters. |
| 5 | 五 | ごgo | Usually regular. |
| 6 | 六 | ろくroku | Often contracts to roっ before h/k counters. |
| 7 | 七 | ななnana | Nana is normally clearer than shichi with counters. |
| 8 | 八 | はちhachi | Often contracts to haっ before h/k counters. |
| 9 | 九 | きゅうkyū | Use kyū, not ku, with most counters. |
| 10 | 十 | じゅうjū | Often contracts to juっ before some counters. |
The native ～つ system: the useful fallback
When you do not know the specific counter, use the native Japanese series: (ひとつ) hitotsu, (ふたつ) futatsu, (みっつ) mittsu, (よっつ) yottsu, (いつつ) itsutsu, (むっつ) muttsu, (ななつ) nanatsu, (やっつ) yattsu, (ここのつ) kokonotsu, and (とお) tō. It counts many ordinary, non-living things, but stops at ten. Ask how many with いくつ (ikutsu). It is natural for things such as apples or ideas, but not for people, time, or objects whose established counter matters in the situation.
The most useful counters
| What you count | Counter | Examples | Used for |
|---|---|---|---|
| General things | ～つ-tsu | 一つ hitotsu · 二つ futatsu · 三つ mittsu | Objects when no more specific counter is needed; only 1–10. |
| People | 人にん (-nin) | 一人 hitori · 二人 futari · 三人 sannin | People. One and two are completely irregular. |
| Small animals | 匹ひき (-hiki) | 一匹 ippiki · 三匹 sanbiki · 六匹 roppiki | Cats, dogs, insects, fish, and other small animals. |
| Large animals | 頭とう (-tō) | 一頭 ittō · 二頭 nitō | Cattle, horses, elephants, and other large animals. |
| Birds and rabbits | 羽わ (-wa) | 一羽 ichiwa · 三羽 sanwa | Birds; traditionally also rabbits. |
| Long objects | 本ほん (-hon) | 一本 ippon · 三本 sanbon · 六本 roppon | Pens, bottles, umbrellas, trees, roads, and other long cylindrical things. |
| Flat objects | 枚まい (-mai) | 一枚 ichimai · 三枚 sanmai | Paper, tickets, plates, shirts, and other thin or flat things. |
| Bound volumes | 冊さつ (-satsu) | 一冊 issatsu · 八冊 hassatsu | Books, notebooks, and magazines. |
| Machines and vehicles | 台だい (-dai) | 一台 ichidai · 四台 yondai | Cars, bicycles, computers, televisions, and machinery. |
| Small items | 個こ (-ko) | 一個 ikko · 六個 rokko · 八個 hakko | Small compact objects; a flexible modern alternative to ～つ. |
| Cups and glasses | 杯はい (-hai) | 一杯 ippai · 三杯 sanbai · 六杯 roppai | Cupfuls, glassfuls, and bowlfuls of liquid. |
| Floors | 階かい (-kai) | 一階 ikkai · 三階 sangai · 六階 rokkai | Floors or storeys of a building. |
| Occurrences | 回かい (-kai) | 一回 ikkai · 三回 sankai · 六回 rokkai | Number of times something happens. |
| Pairs and sets | 組くみ (-kumi) | 一組 hitokumi · 二組 futakumi | Pairs, sets, groups, and school classes. |
| Buildings | 軒けん (-ken) | 一軒 ikken · 三軒 sangen | Houses, shops, and other buildings. |
Counting people with (にん)
People use (にん, -nin). The first two must be memorized: is ひとり (hitori), not ichinin, and is ふたり (futari), not ninin. From three onward, attach にん to the number. Four becomes よにん (yonin), without the extra n in yon, while seven and nine have more than one accepted reading. ななにん and きゅうにん are especially clear in everyday speech.
| Number | Japanese | Reading |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 一人 | ひとりhitori |
| 2 | 二人 | ふたりfutari |
| 3 | 三人 | さんにんsannin |
| 4 | 四人 | よにんyonin |
| 5 | 五人 | ごにんgonin |
| 6 | 六人 | ろくにんrokunin |
| 7 | 七人 | ななにん／しちにんnananin / shichinin |
| 8 | 八人 | はちにんhachinin |
| 9 | 九人 | きゅうにん／くにんkyūnin / kunin |
| 10 | 十人 | じゅうにんjūnin |
| How many? | 何人 | なんにんnannin |
In polite customer service, reservations, and attendance counts, (めい, -mei) is a more formal counter for people: (さんめい, sanmei, “three people”) and ですか (なんめいさまですか, nanmei-sama desu ka, “How many people are in your party?”). Never use or to address someone directly; counters describe the size of a group, while names and titles identify individuals.
家族は四人です。
かぞくは よにん です。 · Kazoku wa yonin desu.
There are four people in my family.
学生が一人います。
がくせいが ひとり います。 · Gakusei ga hitori imasu.
There is one student.
何人で予約しますか。
なんにんで よやくしますか。 · Nannin de yoyaku shimasu ka?
For how many people will you make the reservation?
Why the sounds change
Counters are chosen by meaning, but their pronunciation also bends to make the number-counter boundary easier to say. A small っ doubles the next consonant (, いっぴき), while an h sound may become p or b ( いっぽん ippon, さんぼん sanbon). Learn each combination aloud as one word instead of trying to repair it after joining two separate words.
| No. | long | animals | cups | books | times |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 一本 ippon | 一匹 ippiki | 一杯 ippai | 一冊 issatsu | 一回 ikkai |
| 2 | 二本 nihon | 二匹 nihiki | 二杯 nihai | 二冊 nisatsu | 二回 nikai |
| 3 | 三本 sanbon | 三匹 sanbiki | 三杯 sanbai | 三冊 sansatsu | 三回 sankai |
| 4 | 四本 yonhon | 四匹 yonhiki | 四杯 yonhai | 四冊 yonsatsu | 四回 yonkai |
| 5 | 五本 gohon | 五匹 gohiki | 五杯 gohai | 五冊 gosatsu | 五回 gokai |
| 6 | 六本 roppon | 六匹 roppiki | 六杯 roppai | 六冊 rokusatsu | 六回 rokkai |
| 7 | 七本 nanahon | 七匹 nanahiki | 七杯 nanahai | 七冊 nanasatsu | 七回 nanakai |
| 8 | 八本 happon | 八匹 happiki | 八杯 happai | 八冊 hassatsu | 八回 hakkai |
| 9 | 九本 kyūhon | 九匹 kyūhiki | 九杯 kyūhai | 九冊 kyūsatsu | 九回 kyūkai |
| 10 | 十本 juppon | 十匹 juppiki | 十杯 juppai | 十冊 jussatsu | 十回 jukkai |
Counting time, dates, and age
| What you count | Counter | Examples | Used for |
|---|---|---|---|
| Clock hours | 時じ (-ji) | 一時 ichiji · 四時 yoji · 七時 shichiji · 九時 kuji | A time on the clock; 4, 7, and 9 use special readings. |
| Hours long | 時間じかん (-jikan) | 一時間 ichijikan · 四時間 yojikan · 九時間 kyūjikan | Elapsed hours. Four is yo, while nine changes from clock-time ku to kyū. |
| Minutes | 分ふん／ぷん (-fun/-pun) | 一分 ippun · 三分 sanpun · 五分 gofun · 六分 roppun | Clock minutes or a duration in minutes. |
| Days long | 日か／にち (-ka/-nichi) | 二日 futsuka · 十日 tōka · 十一日 jūichinichi | Dates and durations; the same irregular forms appear in the days-of-month lesson. |
| Weeks | 週間しゅうかん (-shūkan) | 一週間 isshūkan · 八週間 hasshūkan | A duration measured in weeks. |
| Months long | か月かげつ (-kagetsu) | 一か月 ikkagetsu · 六か月 rokkagetsu | A duration in months, not the name of a calendar month. |
| Calendar months | 月がつ (-gatsu) | 一月 ichigatsu · 四月 shigatsu · 七月 shichigatsu · 九月 kugatsu | Month names; 4, 7, and 9 have special readings. |
| Years | 年ねん (-nen) | 一年 ichinen · 四年 yonen · 何年 nannen | Calendar years or durations in years; is yonen. |
| Age | 歳さい (-sai) | 一歳 issai · 八歳 hassai · 二十歳 hatachi | Years of age; 20 years old is irregular. |
Keep clock time and duration separate: is よじ (yoji, “four o'clock”), but is よじかん (yojikan, “four hours”). Calendar months and elapsed months differ too: is しがつ (shigatsu, “April”), while is よんかげつ (yonkagetsu, “four months”). For the complete set of irregular dates, use the “Days of the month” lesson above.
Where the counter goes
The most natural pattern is noun + particle + number-counter + verb: りんごを (りんごを みっつ かいました, Ringo o mittsu kaimashita, “I bought three apples”). You can also put the quantity before the noun with の: の (さんさつの ほん, sansatsu no hon, “three books”). Ask with plus the counter: (なんにん, nannin, how many people), (なんびき, nanbiki, how many small animals), (なんぼん, nanbon, how many long objects), or (なんまい, nanmai, how many flat objects). The general question is いくつ.
猫が二匹います。
ねこが にひき います。 · Neko ga nihiki imasu.
There are two cats.
水を三本ください。
みずを さんぼん ください。 · Mizu o sanbon kudasai.
Three bottles of water, please.
切符を二枚買いました。
きっぷを にまい かいました。 · Kippu o nimai kaimashita.
I bought two tickets.
日本に三週間いました。
にほんに さんしゅうかん いました。 · Nihon ni sanshūkan imashita.
I was in Japan for three weeks.
何人で行きますか。
なんにんで いきますか。 · Nannin de ikimasu ka?
How many people are going?
A practical learning strategy
Do not try to memorize every Japanese counter at once—there are hundreds, and even native speakers sometimes choose a general counter or ask which one fits. Start with ～つ, (にん), (ひき), (ほん), (まい), (こ), (だい), (さつ), (かい), and the time counters. Learn the noun together with its counter (を, hon o sansatsu) and pay special attention to 1, 3, 6, 8, and 10, where sound changes cluster. Being understood with a slightly imperfect counter is better than avoiding the quantity entirely.
Practice writing counter phrasesLesson 9.51 min readRendaku (): why sounds change in compound words
Rendaku (, れんだく, rendaku) is a sound change that happens when two words join into one compound: the first sound of the second word becomes its voiced version. That's why (こや, koya, "hut") turns into ごや (goya) in (いぬごや, inugoya, "doghouse") - the こ picks up the dakuten (゛) from Lesson 1.
It's one of the most common reasons a word you know sounds slightly different inside a longer word. This lesson shows the four everyday patterns, plenty of examples, and the honest caveat that rendaku is a strong tendency, not a rule you can apply to every compound.
What rendaku does
In many compound words, the first sound of the second part is voiced: it takes the dakuten (゛) you met in the hiragana lesson. Only that one sound changes - the first part of the compound and the rest of the second part stay exactly as they were.
Worked example: → ごや
On its own, is こや (koya), "hut" or "shed." It is built from (こ, "small") and (や, "house, shop"), the same as in (はなや, hanaya, "florist"). Put another word in front of it and becomes the second part of a compound, so its first sound こ (ko) is voiced to ご (go).
犬小屋
いぬ + こや → いぬごや · inugoya
doghouse, kennel
山小屋
やま + こや → やまごや · yamagoya
mountain hut
鶏小屋
にわとり + こや → にわとりごや · niwatorigoya
chicken coop
Only the first sound of the second part changes: こ → ご. The や stays や, because only sounds from the k, s, t, and h rows have a voiced partner. The first parts (, , ) are untouched.
The four common sound changes
These are the same pairs as in the dakuten chart in Lesson 1. Rendaku uses them in one direction only: from the plain sound to the voiced one.
| Change | Kana | Example |
|---|---|---|
| k → g | か き く け こ → が ぎ ぐ げ ご | 手紙てがみtegami |
| s → z | さ し す せ そ → ざ じ ず ぜ ぞ | 青空あおぞらaozora |
| t → d | た ち つ て と → だ ぢ づ で ど | 友達ともだちtomodachi |
| h → b | は ひ ふ へ ほ → ば び ぶ べ ぼ | 花火はなびhanabi |
し → じ: し (shi) becomes じ (ji). (こじま, kojima, "small island") is こ + しま.
ち → ぢ and つ → づ: these sound exactly like じ (ji) and ず (zu). Spelling normally uses じ and ず. Modern spelling keeps ぢ and づ in compounds you can still split into two parts, as in (はなぢ, hanaji, "nosebleed") and (てづくり, tezukuri, "handmade"), and in repeated sounds such as ちぢむ. Some words use じ or ず even though they come from ち or つ, such as (せかいじゅう), so learn the spelling together with the word. On a computer or phone keyboard with a Japanese romaji input, ぢ is typed "di" and づ is typed "du."
ふ → ぶ: the h row includes ふ (fu), which becomes ぶ (bu). (てぶくろ, tebukuro, "gloves") is て + ふくろ.
h → p is a different case. The p sounds (ぱ ぴ ぷ ぺ ぽ, written with handakuten ゜) appear in words such as (いっぽん, ippon) and (ろっぽん, roppon), usually after a doubling っ. That comes from the fixed counter patterns in Lesson 9 (compare さんぼん, with b after ん), not from rendaku, which only ever voices (゛) and never produces a p sound.
More examples
Every word below is built from two parts you may already know. The voiced sound is in bold in the third column.
| Compound | Reading | Parts and change | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 犬小屋 | いぬごやinugoya | いぬ + こや → いぬごや (こ → ご) | doghouse, kennel |
| 山小屋 | やまごやyamagoya | やま + こや → やまごや (こ → ご) | mountain hut |
| 鶏小屋 | にわとりごやniwatorigoya | にわとり + こや → にわとりごや (こ → ご) | chicken coop |
| 手紙 | てがみtegami | て + かみ → てがみ (か → が) | letter |
| 青空 | あおぞらaozora | あお + そら → あおぞら (そ → ぞ) | blue sky |
| 小島 | こじまkojima | こ + しま → こじま (し → じ) | small island |
| 友達 | ともだちtomodachi | とも + たち → ともだち (た → だ) | friend |
| 本棚 | ほんだなhondana | ほん + たな → ほんだな (た → だ) | bookshelf |
| 手作り | てづくりtezukuri | て + つくり → てづくり (つ → づ) | handmade |
| 花火 | はなびhanabi | はな + ひ → はなび (ひ → び) | fireworks |
| 手袋 | てぶくろtebukuro | て + ふくろ → てぶくろ (ふ → ぶ) | gloves |
Rendaku is a tendency, not a rule
Rendaku is common, but it does not happen in every compound, and no simple formula tells you for certain which ones get it. Two words can share a second part and still behave differently: (でぐち, deguchi, "exit") voices , but (はやくち, hayakuchi, "fast talking") does not.
| Compound | Reading | Meaning | Why nothing changed |
|---|---|---|---|
| 早口 | はやくちhayakuchi | fast talking | はや + くち. Same second part as , different result - no simple rule for beginners predicts this one. |
| 花屋 | はなやhanaya | florist | や has no voiced partner, so there is nothing to voice. Compare → ごや, where it is the こ that changes. |
| 北風 | きたかぜkitakaze | north wind | かぜ already contains a voiced sound (ぜ). This is Lyman's law, explained below. |
| 電車 | でんしゃdensha | train | A Chinese-derived (on'yomi) compound: 電 (でん) + 車 (しゃ). Rendaku is rare here. |
Two useful tendencies
Lyman's law: if the second part already contains a voiced consonant (a b, d, g, or z sound), rendaku usually does not happen. That is why is きたかぜ and not きたがぜ - the ぜ in かぜ is already voiced. Compare (おりがみ, origami), where かみ has no voiced sound, so か → が is fine.
Native Japanese words versus Chinese-derived words: rendaku mostly happens when the second part is a native Japanese (, わご, wago) word - the ones usually read with kun'yomi, like , , and . That is why (ほんだな) still voices, even though is on'yomi. It is rare in compounds made of Chinese-derived (on'yomi) parts, which is why is でんしゃ and not でんじゃ. It is also rare in katakana loanwords.
These two tendencies are a simplification for beginners: linguists describe more detailed conditions, and both have exceptions.
Repeated words with 々
The repeat mark 々 stands for the kanji before it, and the second copy is often voiced: (ときどき, tokidoki, "sometimes") and (ひとびと, hitobito, "people"). It is not automatic, and it cannot happen when the second sound has no voiced partner: (いろいろ, iroiro, "various") stays いろいろ.
How to learn rendaku words
Learn the compound as one word. Write down as てがみ, not as て + かみ - the reading you will actually see and hear is the voiced one.
When a native Japanese compound is new to you, expect a voiced second part if it starts with a k, s, t, or h sound, then check the reading in a dictionary or in the vocabulary lists. A wrong guess is normal - the pattern is a tendency, not a rule.
If a word you know the parts of sounds slightly off, it is usually rendaku. The parts are the same words you already know, with one voiced sound.
For a longer walk-through, see the blog post Rendaku explained: why becomes ごや in .
Check yourself
How is 犬小屋 read, and which sound changed?
いぬごや (inugoya). The こ of became ご (k → g).
Would you expect 電車 to be read でんじゃ?
No. It is a Chinese-derived compound, where rendaku is rare: でんしゃ (densha).
Is 北風 read きたかぜ or きたがぜ, and why?
きたかぜ (kitakaze). かぜ already has the voiced sound ぜ, so Lyman's law blocks rendaku.
True or false: once you know the four sound changes, you can predict every compound's reading.
False. is でぐち but is はやくち. Learn each compound with its reading.
Lesson 101 min readJapanese money
のお (にほんのおかね, Nihon no okane) means "Japanese money." Japan's currency is the yen (, えん, en), and every price you see - on a menu, a price tag, or a receipt - is a number followed directly by , with no separate currency symbol in front of it.
This lesson covers the coins and bills themselves, how to read and ask about prices, and - since shopping almost always means comparing options - how to say that one thing is more expensive, cheaper, or the best value than another.
The yen: coins and bills
Japan's currency is the yen (, えん, en), and prices are always written with directly after the number - never a separate symbol before it. There are six coins and four everyday bills.
| Denomination | Reading | Note |
|---|---|---|
| 1円 | いちえんichien | Coin. Aluminum and light enough to float briefly on water. |
| 5円 | ごえんgoen | Coin with a hole and no arabic numeral - only in kanji. Considered lucky: five yen (ご) is a homophone for “connection/fate,” so it's a common shrine offering. |
| 10円 | じゅうえんjūen | Coin. |
| 50円 | ごじゅうえんgojūen | Coin with a hole, so it's distinguishable from 100 by touch. |
| 100円 | ひゃくえんhyakuen | Coin. |
| 500円 | ごひゃくえんgohyakuen | Coin - one of the highest-value coins used anywhere. |
| 1,000円 | せんえんsen'en | Bill. |
| 2,000円 | にせんえんnisen'en | Bill, issued for the millennium in 2000 - genuine, but rarely seen in everyday change. |
| 5,000円 | ごせんえんgosen'en | Bill. |
| 10,000円 | いちまんえんichiman'en | Bill - always says いち before , unlike some other counted units. |
Reading price amounts
attaches to a number exactly like the counters in the "Counting things" lesson, and the same sound changes apply - (ひゃく, hyaku) and (せん, sen) shift after certain numbers. Most amounts are completely regular; these are the ones worth knowing by heart because they show up on price tags constantly.
| Amount | Reading | What changed |
|---|---|---|
| 300円 | さんびゃくえんsanbyakuen | voices to びゃく after san. |
| 600円 | ろっぴゃくえんroppyakuen | becomes ぴゃく with a doubling っ after roku. |
| 800円 | はっぴゃくえんhappyakuen | Same doubling pattern after hachi. |
| 3,000円 | さんぜんえんsanzen'en | voices to ぜん after san. |
| 8,000円 | はっせんえんhassen'en | stays せん, but hachi doubles into はっ. |
| 10,000円 | いちまんえんichiman'en | always keeps its own いち, rather than being dropped the way “one” sometimes is in English. |
Lesson 9.5 introduced rendaku, the voicing that happens when two words join. Numbers and counters follow a similar idea, but with fixed patterns rather than a rule you can apply freely: the readings in this table are set forms, so learn them as a group.
Asking about and paying for things
A small set of fixed phrases covers almost every shopping interaction: asking the price, asking for a total, and talking about how you're paying.
これはいくらですか。
これは いくら ですか。 · Kore wa ikura desu ka?
How much is this?
全部でいくらですか。
ぜんぶで いくら ですか。 · Zenbu de ikura desu ka?
How much is it all together?
このシャツは三千円です。
このシャツは さんぜんえん です。 · Kono shatsu wa sanzen'en desu.
This shirt is 3,000 yen.
カードで払えますか。
カードで はらえますか。 · Kādo de haraemasu ka?
Can I pay by card?
Useful related words: お (おかいけい, okaikei, "the bill/total," especially at restaurants), (げんきん, genkin, "cash"), お (おつり, otsuri, "change"), レシート (reshīto, "receipt"), and the price-tag terms (ぜいこみ, zeikomi, "tax included") and (ぜいぬき, zeinuki, "before tax").
Describing and comparing prices
(たかい, takai) means "expensive" (or, for other things, "tall/high"), and (やすい, yasui) means "cheap." To compare two things, attach より (yori, "than") to whichever one you're comparing against - the item before より is what the sentence describes, and the comparison word comes right after.
これはあれより高いです。
これは あれより たかいです。 · Kore wa are yori takai desu.
This is more expensive than that.
Aの方がBより安いです。
エーの ほうが ビーより やすいです。 · A no hō ga B yori yasui desu.
A is cheaper than B.
この二つは同じくらいです。
この ふたつは おなじ くらいです。 · Kono futatsu wa onaji kurai desu.
These two are about the same (price).
これが一番安いです。
これが いちばん やすいです。 · Kore ga ichiban yasui desu.
This one is the cheapest.
これは高すぎます。もっと安いのはありますか。
これは たかすぎます。もっと やすいのは ありますか。 · Kore wa takasugimasu. Motto yasui no wa arimasu ka?
This is too expensive. Do you have a cheaper one?
(いちばん, ichiban, "number one/most") turns or into a superlative - is "the most expensive," is "the cheapest." Attaching すぎる (sugiru, "too much") to an adjective's stem, as in , means "too expensive" rather than simply expensive.
Practice writing prices and comparisonsLesson 111 min readVerb types and present tense
Every Japanese verb falls into one of three groups - ru-verbs, u-verbs, or irregular verbs - and which group a verb belongs to decides how it conjugates for every tense. This lesson covers how to tell the groups apart, and how each one forms the present tense: affirmative and negative, in both polite and plain speech, starting from the dictionary form every verb is listed under.
The dictionary form
Every Japanese verb has a dictionary form (also called the plain, or non-past, form) - the base version you'd look up in a dictionary, and also the plain present tense used as-is with friends or in casual speech. It always ends in an u-sound: う, く, ぐ, す, つ, ぬ, ぶ, む, or る. Which of those endings a verb has, and what comes right before it, determines which of three groups it belongs to - and every group conjugates differently.
The three verb groups
Ru-verbs (, いちだん, ichidan, "one-step") end in る preceded by an い or え sound, and conjugate by simply dropping that る.
| Dictionary form | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べる | たべるtaberu | to eat |
| 見る | みるmiru | to see/watch |
| 起きる | おきるokiru | to wake up/get up |
| できる | できるdekiru | to be able to |
U-verbs (, ごだん, godan, "five-step") end in any other u-sound - or in る not preceded by い/え - and conjugate by shifting that final kana across the five vowel steps (あ・い・う・え・お) of its row (か・き・く・け・こ, for example), which is where the "five-step" name comes from. On the Conjugation page these two groups are labelled Ichidan and Godan verbs, the same categories under their Japanese linguistic names.
| Dictionary form | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 飲む | のむnomu | to drink |
| 書く | かくkaku | to write |
| 話す | はなすhanasu | to speak |
| 買う | かうkau | to buy |
| 帰る | かえるkaeru | to go home - a u-verb despite ending in る |
Irregular verbs don't follow either pattern: する (suru, "to do") and (くる, kuru, "to come") each conjugate their own unique way. する matters far beyond that one word, though - it also attaches to nouns to make compound verbs, such as する (べんきょうする, benkyō suru, "to study") or する (れんしゅうする, renshū suru, "to practice"), all of which conjugate exactly like plain する.
Present tense: affirmative and negative
Japanese has no separate future tense - the present tense also covers future and habitual actions, so ます (たべます) can mean "I eat" or "I will eat" depending on context. Polite speech (the ～ます form, safe in almost any situation) and plain speech (used with close friends and family, and as the dictionary form itself) negate differently, and plain negation also depends on the verb's group.
| Dictionary form | Group | Polite (～ます) | Polite negative (～ません) | Plain negative (～ない) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 食べる taberu | Ru-verb | 食べます tabemasu | 食べません tabemasen | 食べない tabenai |
| 飲む nomu | U-verb | 飲みます nomimasu | 飲みません nomimasen | 飲まない nomanai |
| 書く kaku | U-verb | 書きます kakimasu | 書きません kakimasen | 書かない kakanai |
| 話す hanasu | U-verb | 話します hanashimasu | 話しません hanashimasen | 話さない hanasanai |
| 買う kau | U-verb | 買います kaimasu | 買いません kaimasen | 買わない kawanai |
| する suru | Irregular | します shimasu | しません shimasen | しない shinai |
| 来る kuru | Irregular | 来ます kimasu | 来ません kimasen | 来ない konai |
毎日野菜を食べます。
まいにち やさいを たべます。 · Mainichi yasai o tabemasu.
I eat vegetables every day.
肉を食べません。
にくを たべません。 · Niku o tabemasen.
I don't eat meat.
明日、友達と話します。
あした、ともだちと はなします。 · Ashita, tomodachi to hanashimasu.
I'll talk with a friend tomorrow.
週末は勉強しない。
しゅうまつは べんきょうしない。 · Shūmatsu wa benkyō shinai.
(I) don't study on weekends. - plain speech.
Start by sorting a handful of common verbs into their group and drilling the ～ます and ない forms out loud - once that reflex is automatic for all three groups, the other tenses (past, て-form, potential, and so on) reuse the exact same group-by-group logic. The Conjugation page has the complete set of forms for every JLPT-tagged verb, already sorted by group.
Want the full story on Godan and Ichidan verbs? Lesson 11.5 shows why Godan means "five steps," how to tell the groups apart when a verb ends in る, and the て-form rule for every Godan ending.
Browse full verb conjugation tablesLesson 11.51 min readGodan and Ichidan verbs: what ("five steps") really means
Godan verbs (五段動詞, ごだんどうし, godan dōshi, also called Group 1 or u-verbs) change their last kana across the five steps of the kana chart - あ, い, う, え, お. Ichidan verbs (一段動詞, いちだんどうし, ichidan dōshi, Group 2 or ru-verbs) keep their stem and just swap る for an ending. The only irregular verbs (Group 3) are する and (くる).
A verb's group is decided by how it conjugates, not just by whether it ends in る: (うる, uru, "to sell") ends in る but is Godan. This lesson shows why means "five steps," how to tell the groups apart, the common exceptions, and the て-form rule for every Godan ending.
Three groups, three sets of names
Every Japanese verb belongs to one of three groups, and the group decides how the verb conjugates. Books use different names for the same groups: linguists use the Japanese names, many textbooks number the groups, and English-language courses often say u-verbs and ru-verbs.
| Japanese name | Textbook label | Also called | Dictionary form ends in |
|---|---|---|---|
| 五段動詞ごだんどうしgodan dōshi | Group 1 | U-verbs | Any u-sound: う く ぐ す つ ぬ ぶ む る |
| 一段動詞いちだんどうしichidan dōshi | Group 2 | Ru-verbs | る after an い or え sound |
| 不規則動詞ふきそくどうしfukisoku dōshi | Group 3 | Irregular verbs | Only する and (くる) |
Verbs are sorted by how they conjugate, not simply by whether they end in る. That is why (うる, uru, "to sell") ends in る and is still Godan - the rest of this lesson shows exactly why.
: why "five steps"?
(だん, dan) means "step" or "level." The kana chart (, ごじゅうおんず, gojūon-zu) is arranged in five steps by vowel sound: the あ step (a), the い step (i), the う step (u), the え step (e) and the お step (o). (ごだん, godan) means "five steps" because a Godan verb's last kana moves through all five of them as the verb conjugates.
Take (うる, uru, "to sell"). Its last kana is る, from the ら row of the chart (ら り る れ ろ). Everything in front of it - - stays still. Only that last kana steps up and down:
- ららないあ (a)
- りりますい (i)
- るるう (u)
- れればえ (e)
- ろろうお (o)
| Step () | Form | Reading | Used for |
|---|---|---|---|
| あ段 (a) | 売らない | うらないuranai | Plain negative (～ない) |
| い段 (i) | 売ります | うりますurimasu | Polite form (～ます) |
| う段 (u) | 売る | うるuru | Dictionary form |
| え段 (e) | 売れば | うればureba | Conditional (～ば) |
| お段 (o) | 売ろう | うろうurō | Volitional: let's / I'll (～う) |
The same five steps for every Godan ending
Every Godan ending works the same way, using its own row of the kana chart. One small twist: a verb ending in う, like , uses わ instead of あ on its first step (, not ).
| Ending | Verb | あ step + ない | い step + ます | う step (dictionary) | え step + ば | お step + う |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| う | 買うかうkau | 買わない | 買います | 買う | 買えば | 買おう |
| く | 書くかくkaku | 書かない | 書きます | 書く | 書けば | 書こう |
| ぐ | 泳ぐおよぐoyogu | 泳がない | 泳ぎます | 泳ぐ | 泳げば | 泳ごう |
| す | 話すはなすhanasu | 話さない | 話します | 話す | 話せば | 話そう |
| つ | 待つまつmatsu | 待たない | 待ちます | 待つ | 待てば | 待とう |
| ぬ | 死ぬしぬshinu | 死なない | 死にます | 死ぬ | 死ねば | 死のう |
| ぶ | 遊ぶあそぶasobu | 遊ばない | 遊びます | 遊ぶ | 遊べば | 遊ぼう |
| む | 住むすむsumu | 住まない | 住みます | 住む | 住めば | 住もう |
| る | 売るうるuru | 売らない | 売ります | 売る | 売れば | 売ろう |
Ichidan: one step only
(いちだん, ichidan) means "one step." An Ichidan verb's stem - everything before る - never moves to another step: it stays on the い step (, ) or on the え step (る, ). To conjugate, you drop る and add the ending. Japanese school grammar calls these and verbs - the "upper" and "lower" one-step verbs - after the い step above う and the え step below it.
| Form | Godan: (うる) | Ichidan: る (たべる) |
|---|---|---|
| Plain negative (～ない) | 売らないうらない · uranai | 食べないたべない · tabenai |
| Polite form (～ます) | 売りますうります · urimasu | 食べますたべます · tabemasu |
| Dictionary form | 売るうる · uru | 食べるたべる · taberu |
| Conditional (～ば) | 売ればうれば · ureba | 食べればたべれば · tabereba |
| Volitional: let's / I'll (～う / ～よう) | 売ろううろう · urō | 食べようたべよう · tabeyō |
Irregular verbs: する and
Only two verbs are truly irregular: する (suru, "to do") and (くる, kuru, "to come"). They follow neither pattern and are simply memorized. is the trickier one: the kanji stays the same, but its reading changes (こ, き, く, く, こ) from form to form. Every する compound, such as する (べんきょうする, "to study"), conjugates exactly like する.
| Form | する (suru) | (くる, kuru) |
|---|---|---|
| Plain negative (～ない) | しないshinai | 来ないこないkonai |
| Polite form (～ます) | しますshimasu | 来ますきますkimasu |
| Dictionary form | するsuru | 来るくるkuru |
| Conditional (～ば) | すればsureba | 来ればくればkureba |
| Volitional: let's / I'll (～う / ～よう) | しようshiyō | 来ようこようkoyō |
The る trap: not every る verb is Ichidan
Ichidan verbs end in る, so beginners often assume every verb ending in る is Ichidan. It is not. ends in る and is Godan: its polite form is ます (urimasu), where る becomes ります. Compare る, an Ichidan verb, where る simply becomes ます: ます (tabemasu). Use this guide on the dictionary form:
| Dictionary form ends in | Group | Why | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| う, く, ぐ, す, つ, ぬ, ぶ or む | Godan - always | Only る verbs can be Ichidan. | 買う (かう), 書く (かく), 泳ぐ (およぐ), 話す (はなす), 待つ (まつ), 遊ぶ (あそぶ), 飲む (のむ) |
| る after an あ, う or お sound | Godan - always | Ichidan verbs only exist after an い or え sound. This is where (うる) belongs. | 売る (うる), 作る (つくる), 分かる (わかる), 乗る (のる) |
| る after an い or え sound | Usually Ichidan | Most are Ichidan, but a short list is Godan - see the exceptions below. | 食べる (たべる), 見る (みる), 起きる (おきる), 寝る (ねる) |
| する or | Irregular | Each conjugates its own way, including every する compound. | する, 来る (くる), 勉強する (べんきょうする) |
A short list of common verbs ends in る after an い or え sound and still conjugates as Godan, so they look Ichidan but are not. Learn them as a list. Their polite forms give them away: る becomes ります. The list is not complete (others include , , , and ): if a verb ending in い or え plus る is not on it, check the Conjugation page.
| Verb | Reading | Meaning | Polite form |
|---|---|---|---|
| 帰る | かえるkaeru | to go home | 帰ります (かえります) |
| 入る | はいるhairu | to enter | 入ります (はいります) |
| 走る | はしるhashiru | to run | 走ります (はしります) |
| 切る | きるkiru | to cut | 切ります (きります) |
| 知る | しるshiru | to know | 知ります (しります) |
| 要る | いるiru | to need | 要ります (いります) |
| 滑る | すべるsuberu | to slip | 滑ります (すべります) |
| 握る | にぎるnigiru | to grip | 握ります (にぎります) |
Two Godan verbs each have one irregular quirk: (いく, iku, "to go") is regular everywhere except its て-form and past (, ), and ある ("to exist") has the plain negative ない instead of あらない.
Some pairs of verbs share the same reading but belong to different groups. Only the kanji and the context tell you which is which, so learn the group together with the word:
| Verb | Reading | Meaning | Group | Polite form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 着る | きるkiru | to wear | Ichidan | 着ます (きます, kimasu) |
| 切る | きるkiru | to cut | Godan | 切ります (きります, kirimasu) |
| 変える | かえるkaeru | to change | Ichidan | 変えます (かえます, kaemasu) |
| 帰る | かえるkaeru | to go home | Godan | 帰ります (かえります, kaerimasu) |
| 居る | いるiru | to be (people and animals) - usually written いる | Ichidan | います (imasu) |
| 要る | いるiru | to need | Godan | 要ります (いります, irimasu) |
Not sure about a verb? The Verb Conjugation page labels every verb as Godan, Ichidan or irregular and shows its full table, so you can check any verb you are unsure about.
Godan て-form: the ending decides
The て-form of a Godan verb depends on its last kana. Historically, the て-form was the い step plus て (), which was awkward to say and was smoothed into ; the same kind of smoothing gave んで and いて. The result is five short rules:
| Sound change | Dictionary form | て-form | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| う・つ・る → って | 売るuru | 売ってうってutte | to sell |
| う・つ・る → って | 買うkau | 買ってかってkatte | to buy |
| う・つ・る → って | 待つmatsu | 待ってまってmatte | to wait |
| む・ぶ・ぬ → んで | 住むsumu | 住んですんでsunde | to live (somewhere) |
| む・ぶ・ぬ → んで | 遊ぶasobu | 遊んであそんでasonde | to play |
| む・ぶ・ぬ → んで | 死ぬshinu | 死んでしんでshinde | to die |
| く → いて | 書くkaku | 書いてかいてkaite | to write |
| ぐ → いで | 泳ぐoyogu | 泳いでおよいでoyoide | to swim |
| す → して | 話すhanasu | 話してはなしてhanashite | to speak |
| Exception: く → って | 行くiku | 行っていってitte | to go |
Ichidan verbs just drop る and add て (る → て), and the irregular verbs are して and (きて). The same sound changes build the plain past (た-form): , , . Lesson 28 covers the て-form in full, with the sentence patterns it unlocks.
Example sentences
Godan verbs
古い本を売ります。
ふるい ほんを うります。 · Furui hon o urimasu.
I'll sell my old books.
大切な本は売らない。
たいせつな ほんは うらない。 · Taisetsu na hon wa uranai.
I don't sell books that matter to me. (plain speech)
いらない本を売ろう。
いらない ほんを うろう。 · Iranai hon o urō.
Let's sell the books we don't need. (plain speech; polite: ましょう)
古い本を売って、新しい本を買います。
ふるい ほんを うって、あたらしい ほんを かいます。 · Furui hon o utte, atarashii hon o kaimasu.
I'll sell my old books and buy new ones.
私は東京に住んでいます。
わたしは とうきょうに すんでいます。 · Watashi wa Tōkyō ni sunde imasu.
I live in Tokyo.
友達に手紙を書きます。
ともだちに てがみを かきます。 · Tomodachi ni tegami o kakimasu.
I write a letter to a friend.
先生と日本語で話します。
せんせいと にほんごで はなします。 · Sensei to nihongo de hanashimasu.
I talk with my teacher in Japanese.
Ichidan verbs
朝ご飯にパンを食べます。
あさごはんに パンを たべます。 · Asagohan ni pan o tabemasu.
I eat bread for breakfast.
六時に起きて、朝ご飯を食べます。
ろくじに おきて、あさごはんを たべます。 · Rokuji ni okite, asagohan o tabemasu.
I get up at six and eat breakfast.
毎日ニュースを見ます。
まいにち ニュースを みます。 · Mainichi nyūsu o mimasu.
I watch the news every day.
Irregular verbs
毎日、日本語を勉強します。
まいにち、にほんごを べんきょうします。 · Mainichi, nihongo o benkyō shimasu.
I study Japanese every day.
明日、友達が来ます。
あした、ともだちが きます。 · Ashita, tomodachi ga kimasu.
A friend is coming tomorrow.
Look-alike verbs: same reading, different group
家に帰ります。
いえに かえります。 · Ie ni kaerimasu.
I go home. ( is Godan: る becomes ります.)
部屋を変えます。
へやを かえます。 · Heya o kaemasu.
I'm going to change rooms. ( is Ichidan: る becomes ます.)
髪を切ります。
かみを きります。 · Kami o kirimasu.
I'm going to get my hair cut. ( is Godan.)
白いシャツを着ます。
しろい シャツを きます。 · Shiroi shatsu o kimasu.
I wear a white shirt. ( is Ichidan.)
Keep practicing
For a compact reference, see the verb groups grammar page. To check any verb, use the Verb Conjugation page. For a longer walk-through, read the blog post Godan vs Ichidan verbs, and why is Godan.
Check yourself
Which group is 売る (うる), and how can you tell?
Godan. The kana before る is う, and Ichidan verbs only exist after an い or え sound. Its last kana moves ら・り・る・れ・ろ: らない, ます, , れば, ろう.
Why is 食べる Ichidan?
The kana before る is べ (an え sound), so it can be Ichidan, and る is not on the exception list. Its stem never changes: you drop る and add the ending (ない, ます, れば).
True or false: every verb that ends in る is Ichidan.
False. , , and all end in る and are Godan. Check the kana before る, then learn the short exception list.
What is the て-form of 住む (すむ)?
(すんで, sunde). む, ぶ and ぬ all become んで.
着る and 切る are both read きる. Which is Ichidan?
(to wear) is Ichidan: . (to cut) is Godan: .
Lesson 121 min readThe time particle に: when to use it (and when not to)
The "Time & Calendar" lesson taught words for days, weeks, months, and years relative to today - this lesson covers the one grammar rule that ties all of that vocabulary together: whether a time word takes the particle に or not.
The short version: a fixed point on the calendar (a clock time, a named weekday, a date, a month, a year) takes に. A word that already describes its position relative to now - today, next week, every month - never does.
Specific points in time: add に
に marks an exact, fixed point on the timeline - a clock time, a named day of the week, a calendar date, a month, or a year. Attach it right after the time word.
七時に起きます。
しちじに おきます。 · Shichiji ni okimasu.
I get up at seven o'clock.
月曜日に日本語を勉強します。
げつようびに にほんごを べんきょうします。 · Getsuyōbi ni nihongo o benkyō shimasu.
I study Japanese on Monday.
四月に日本へ行きます。
しがつに にほんへ いきます。 · Shigatsu ni Nihon e ikimasu.
I'm going to Japan in April.
二〇二〇年に生まれました。
にせんにじゅうねんに うまれました。 · Nisen nijū nen ni umaremashita.
I was born in 2020.
Relative time words: never add に
Words that already locate themselves relative to "now" - built from (こん, current), (せん, previous), (らい, next), and (さらい, after next), plus (きのう)/ (あした)-style day words - never take に. These are the same relative-time words from the "Time & Calendar" lesson; here they are without their prefixes' に, contrasted directly against the fixed dates above.
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 一昨日 | おとといototoi | the day before yesterday | |
| 昨日 | きのうkinō | yesterday | |
| 今日 | きょうkyō | today | |
| 明日 | あしたashita | tomorrow | |
| 明後日 | あさってasatte | the day after tomorrow |
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 二週間前 | にしゅうかんまえnishūkan mae | two weeks ago | |
| 先週 | せんしゅうsenshū | last week | |
| 今週 | こんしゅうkonshū | this week | |
| 来週 | らいしゅうraishū | next week | |
| 再来週 | さらいしゅうsaraishū | the week after next |
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 二か月前 / 二ヶ月前 | にかげつまえnikagetsu mae | two months ago | |
| 先月 | せんげつsengetsu | last month | |
| 今月 | こんげつkongetsu | this month | |
| 来月 | らいげつraigetsu | next month | |
| 再来月 | さらいげつsaraigetsu | the month after next |
| Japanese | Reading | Meaning | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 一昨年 | おととしototoshi | the year before last | |
| 去年 | きょねんkyonen | last year | |
| 今年 | ことしkotoshi | this year | |
| 来年 | らいねんrainen | next year | |
| 再来年 | さらいねんsarainen | the year after next |
今日は忙しいです。
きょうは いそがしいです。 · Kyō wa isogashii desu.
Today is busy. (not に)
来週、京都に行きます。
らいしゅう、きょうとに いきます。 · Raishū, Kyōto ni ikimasu.
I'm going to Kyoto next week. ( has no に; the に here marks , the destination, not the time)
(every) also skips に
(まい, mai, "every") turns a time word into a recurring one - (まいにち, every day), (まいしゅう, every week), (まいつき, every month), (まいとし／まいねん, every year) - and like the relative words above, none of these take に either.
毎日日本語を勉強します。
まいにち にほんごを べんきょうします。 · Mainichi nihongo o benkyō shimasu.
I study Japanese every day.
Telling the two apart
| Kind of word | Takes に? | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Clock time | Yes | 七時に, 三時半に |
| Named day of the week | Yes | 月曜日に, 金曜日に |
| Calendar date or month | Yes | 四月に, 三日に |
| Year | Yes | 二〇二〇年に |
| /// + day, week, month, year | No | 今日, 先週, 来月, 再来年 |
| + day, week, month, year | No | 毎日, 毎週, 毎月, 毎年 |
| alone ("now") | No | 今 |
As always with grammar rules, native speakers occasionally bend this one in casual speech - but treat it as a firm rule while you're still building the habit. For に's other jobs, including marking where something exists, see the full に grammar entry linked below.
Review the に grammar rule in detailLesson 131 min readInviting someone: ませんか
ませんか (masen ka) turns the polite negative ～ません form into a soft, polite invitation - literally "won't you do X?", but used the way English uses "would you like to?" or "shall we?" It's one of the most common ways to invite someone to do something together in Japanese.
Built from a form you already know
ませんか is just the polite negative ～ません form from the "Verb types and present tense" lesson, with か added on the end. Literally it asks "won't you do X?" - but in practice it's one of the most common ways to invite someone to do something, closer in feel to "would you like to?" or "shall we?"
| Dictionary form | Polite negative (～ません) | Invitation (～ませんか) |
|---|---|---|
| 食べる taberu | 食べません tabemasen | 食べませんか tabemasen ka |
| 飲む nomu | 飲みません nomimasen | 飲みませんか nomimasen ka |
| 行く iku | 行きません ikimasen | 行きませんか ikimasen ka |
| する suru | しません shimasen | しませんか shimasen ka |
| 来る kuru | 来ません kimasen | 来ませんか kimasen ka |
Why a negative question sounds like an invitation
Phrasing an invitation as a negative question softens it - instead of assuming the answer, you're genuinely leaving room for "no," which makes the invitation feel considerate rather than pushy. This is one of the first places beginners see Japanese lean on indirectness to be polite, a pattern that shows up again and again at higher levels.
一緒に映画を見に行きませんか。
いっしょに えいがを みに いきませんか。 · Issho ni eiga o mi ni ikimasen ka?
Would you like to go see a movie together?
お茶を飲みませんか。
おちゃを のみませんか。 · Ocha o nomimasen ka?
Would you like some tea?
週末、一緒に勉強しませんか。
しゅうまつ、いっしょに べんきょうしませんか。 · Shūmatsu, issho ni benkyō shimasen ka?
Would you like to study together this weekend?
ませんか vs ましょう
ましょう ("let's do X") is a related, more direct pattern - it proposes an action as something you'll do together, while ませんか genuinely asks first. Reach for ませんか when you're not sure the other person wants to, and ましょう once the plan is already agreed on or the answer is obviously yes.
今晩、一緒に食事をしませんか。
こんばん、いっしょに しょくじを しませんか。 · Konban, issho ni shokuji o shimasen ka?
Would you like to have dinner together tonight? - a genuine invitation.
はい、いいですね。食べましょう。
はい、いいですね。たべましょう。 · Hai, ii desu ne. Tabemashō.
Sure, sounds good. Let's eat! - accepting, now proposing the plan.
To decline gently, avoid a flat いいえ ("no") - trail off with something like すみません、ちょっと… (sumimasen, chotto…, "sorry, it's a bit…") instead. Leaving the sentence unfinished is itself part of being polite: the reason doesn't need to be spelled out.
Review the ませんか grammar rule in detailLesson 141 min readFrequency adverbs: how often you do things
Saying how often you do something uses a small, fixed set of adverbs - いつも (always) down to (not at all). Most of them work with either an affirmative or negative verb, but the two at the low-frequency end only make sense paired with a negative one, which is the main trap beginners run into with this vocabulary.
The frequency scale
Six words cover almost every "how often" situation, from "always" down to "never." They run along one scale, and the two at the bottom behave differently from the rest.
| Adverb | Reading | Rough frequency | Needs a negative verb? |
|---|---|---|---|
| いつも | いつもitsumo | Always (~100%) | No |
| よく | よくyoku | Often (~80%) | No |
| 時々 | ときどきtokidoki | Sometimes (~50%) | No |
| たまに | たまにtamani | Occasionally (~20–30%) | No |
| あまり | あまりamari | Not very often (~10–20%) | Yes |
| 全然 | ぜんぜんzenzen | Not at all (0%) | Yes |
あまり and need a negative verb
あまり and both build in their own "not," so the verb that follows has to be negative (the ～ません or ～ない form from the "Verb types and present tense" lesson) - あまります (あまり たべます) and ます (ぜんぜん たべます) are not grammatical. This trips up a lot of beginners, since both words sound like plain frequency words on their own.
お酒はあまり飲みません。
おさけは あまり のみません。 · Osake wa amari nomimasen.
I don't drink alcohol very often.
肉は全然食べません。
にくは ぜんぜん たべません。 · Niku wa zenzen tabemasen.
I don't eat meat at all.
In casual modern speech, sometimes appears with a positive meaning too - (ぜんぜんだいじょうぶ, zenzen daijōbu, "totally fine") - but that's a colloquial extension. The negative pairing above is the reliable, textbook-correct rule to lean on.
Where the adverb goes
A frequency adverb sits right after the topic (marked by は) and before the verb: [Topic]は [frequency adverb][verb]。 It also combines naturally with the time words from the "Time particle に" lesson - a specific or relative time word can open the sentence, with the frequency adverb immediately before the verb.
私はいつも朝ご飯を食べます。
わたしは いつも あさごはんを たべます。 · Watashi wa itsumo asagohan o tabemasu.
I always eat breakfast.
週末はよく友達と会います。
しゅうまつは よく ともだちと あいます。 · Shūmatsu wa yoku tomodachi to aimasu.
I often meet friends on weekends.
時々一人で旅行します。
ときどき ひとりで りょこうします。 · Tokidoki hitori de ryokō shimasu.
I sometimes travel alone.
たまにパンを作ります。
たまに パンを つくります。 · Tamani pan o tsukurimasu.
I occasionally make bread.
Start using いつも, よく, and (ときどき) in simple sentences about your own daily habits, then add あまり and once the negative verb forms feel automatic - pairing them incorrectly is one of the most common and easiest-to-fix mistakes at this level.
Practice writing frequency adverb sentencesLesson 151 min readあります and います: saying what exists
あります and います both mean "there is/are" or "to have," and choosing between them comes down to one question: can the subject move around on its own? This lesson covers that rule, the exceptions to it, and how the same two verbs are also used to say what you have.
あります for things, います for living things that move
Both あります and います mean "there is/are" (or "to have"), and the choice between them depends on one thing only: can the subject move around under its own power? Objects, plants, and abstract things use あります. People and animals use います.
机の上に本があります。
つくえのうえに ほんが あります。 · Tsukue no ue ni hon ga arimasu.
There's a book on the desk.
冷蔵庫に卵があります。
れいぞうこに たまごが あります。 · Reizōko ni tamago ga arimasu.
There are eggs in the fridge.
部屋に猫がいます。
へやに ねこが います。 · Heya ni neko ga imasu.
There's a cat in the room.
教室に学生がいます。
きょうしつに がくせいが います。 · Kyōshitsu ni gakusei ga imasu.
There are students in the classroom.
The pattern: place + に, thing + が
Both verbs follow the same structure: [Place]に[Thing/Being]が あります/います。 に marks where something exists - the same に from the "time particle" lesson, just doing its other main job here instead of marking a point in time. が marks the thing whose existence you're announcing.
The exception: plants and things that only look alive
The real test isn't "is it biologically alive" - it's "can it move on its own." That makes (しょくぶつ, shokubutsu, "plants") take あります despite being living things, since a plant can't walk away. The same logic applies to dolls, statues, and robots: however lifelike they look, they take あります because they don't move under their own power.
庭に木があります。
にわに きが あります。 · Niwa ni ki ga arimasu.
There's a tree in the garden.
Saying you have something
Drop the place and both verbs also express simple possession - "I have X" - using the same thing + が pattern.
お金があります。
おかねが あります。 · Okane ga arimasu.
I have money.
兄弟がいます。
きょうだいが います。 · Kyōdai ga imasu.
I have siblings.
Negative and question forms
| Form | Things (あります) | Living, moving beings (います) |
|---|---|---|
| Affirmative | あります (arimasu) | います (imasu) |
| Negative | ありません (arimasen) | いません (imasen) |
| Question | ありますか (arimasu ka) | いますか (imasu ka) |
近くに銀行がありますか。
ちかくに ぎんこうが ありますか。 · Chikaku ni ginkō ga arimasu ka?
Is there a bank nearby?
今日は授業がありません。
きょうは じゅぎょうが ありません。 · Kyō wa jugyō ga arimasen.
There's no class today.
今、家族は家にいません。
いま、かぞくは いえに いません。 · Ima, kazoku wa ie ni imasen.
My family isn't home right now.
Lesson 161 min readLocation words: above, below, inside, next to, and more
Above, below, in front, behind, right, left, inside, outside, next to, near, between - Japanese expresses all of these with a small set of nouns rather than prepositions. This lesson covers that vocabulary and how to combine it with の and に to say exactly where something is, building directly on the あります/います pattern from the previous lesson.
Position words are nouns, not prepositions
English uses prepositions - "on," "under," "behind" - but Japanese uses nouns for the same job. That means each one attaches to whatever it's describing with の, the same way any noun would: の (つくえのうえ, "the top of the desk," i.e. "on the desk"), の (きのした, "under the tree").
| Word | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 上 | うえue | on top of / above |
| 下 | したshita | under / below |
| 前 | まえmae | in front of |
| 後ろ | うしろushiro | behind |
| 右 | みぎmigi | to the right of |
| 左 | ひだりhidari | to the left of |
| 中 | なかnaka | inside |
| 外 | そとsoto | outside |
| 隣 | となりtonari | next to |
| 近く | ちかくchikaku | near |
| 間 | あいだaida | between |
The pattern: [Noun]の[position]に + あります/います
Attach a position word to a noun with の to build a place phrase, then use it exactly like any other place in the あります/います pattern from the previous lesson: [Noun]の[position]に [Thing/Being]が あります/います。
猫は机の下にいます。
ねこは つくえのしたに います。 · Neko wa tsukue no shita ni imasu.
The cat is under the desk.
コンビニは駅の隣にあります。
コンビニは えきのとなりに あります。 · Konbini wa eki no tonari ni arimasu.
The convenience store is next to the station.
銀行は郵便局の近くにあります。
ぎんこうは ゆうびんきょくの ちかくに あります。 · Ginkō wa yūbinkyoku no chikaku ni arimasu.
The bank is near the post office.
本は箱の中にあります。
ほんは はこのなかに あります。 · Hon wa hako no naka ni arimasu.
The book is inside the box.
郵便局は銀行の右にあります。
ゆうびんきょくは ぎんこうの みぎに あります。 · Yūbinkyoku wa ginkō no migi ni arimasu.
The post office is to the right of the bank.
銀行とコンビニの間に本屋があります。
ぎんこうと コンビニのあいだに ほんやが あります。 · Ginkō to konbini no aida ni hon'ya ga arimasu.
There's a bookstore between the bank and the convenience store.
Don't confuse spatial (まえ) with "X time ago"
(まえ) does double duty: attached to a place, のに means "in front of," but attached to a duration (as in (にしゅうかんまえ), "two weeks ago," from the "Time & Calendar" lesson) the same kanji instead means "ago" or "before." Context - whether what comes before it is a place or a length of time - makes which meaning is intended clear.
公園は病院の前にあります。
こうえんは びょういんのまえに あります。 · Kōen wa byōin no mae ni arimasu.
The park is in front of the hospital. (spatial)
三日前に日本に来ました。
みっかまえに にほんに きました。 · Mikka mae ni Nihon ni kimashita.
I came to Japan three days ago. (time)
Lesson 171 min readです, でした, and じゃなかった: present and past, plain and polite
です, the polite copula used with nouns and な-adjectives, has its own past tense - でした - completely separate from the ました/ませんでした pattern verbs use. This lesson covers です/でした's positive and negative forms in both polite speech and the plain speech used with friends and family (だ, だった, じゃない, じゃなかった), plus one common trap: い-adjectives never use でした at all.
です is present tense; でした is its past
です is the polite copula used with nouns and な-adjectives - roughly "is/am/are." Its past tense is でした, "was/were." This is a separate system from verbs, which form the past with ました/ ませんでした, so don't reach for ました here - nouns and な-adjectives always use でした instead.
Nouns: です → でした
去年、学生でした。
きょねん、がくせいでした。 · Kyonen, gakusei deshita.
I was a student last year.
昨日は休みでした。
きのうは やすみでした。 · Kinō wa yasumi deshita.
Yesterday was a day off.
な-adjectives: です → でした
な-adjectives behave like nouns grammatically (see the "な-adjectives + です" grammar entry below), so they follow the exact same です → でした pattern.
公園は静かでした。
こうえんは しずかでした。 · Kōen wa shizuka deshita.
The park was quiet.
このアプリは便利でした。
このアプリは べんりでした。 · Kono apuri wa benri deshita.
This app was convenient.
Negative past: じゃありませんでした
Take the negative present (じゃありません, or the more formal ではありません) and add でした on the end for the negative past - じゃありませんでした, "was/were not."
| Present | Past | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 学生です | 学生でした | student |
| 休みです | 休みでした | a day off |
| 先生です | 先生でした | teacher |
| 静かです | 静かでした | quiet |
| 便利です | 便利でした | convenient |
今日は休みじゃありませんでした。
きょうは やすみじゃありませんでした。 · Kyō wa yasumi ja arimasen deshita.
Today wasn't a day off.
あの図書館は静かじゃありませんでした。
あの としょかんは しずかじゃありませんでした。 · Ano toshokan wa shizuka ja arimasen deshita.
That library wasn't quiet.
Plain speech: だ, だった, じゃない, じゃなかった
です/でした are the polite forms, used with people you're not close to. With friends and family, Japanese uses a plain-speech set instead - だ (present), だった (past), じゃない (negative), and じゃなかった (negative past). Every polite form above has exactly one plain counterpart.
| Form | Plain | Polite |
|---|---|---|
| Present affirmative | だ | です |
| Present negative | じゃない | じゃありません |
| Past affirmative | だった | でした |
| Past negative | じゃなかった | じゃありませんでした |
今日は休みだ。
きょうは やすみだ。 · Kyō wa yasumi da.
Today is a day off. (plain)
昨日は休みじゃなかった。
きのうは やすみじゃなかった。 · Kinō wa yasumi ja nakatta.
Yesterday wasn't a day off. (plain)
この公園は静かじゃない。
このこうえんは しずかじゃない。 · Kono kōen wa shizuka ja nai.
This park isn't quiet. (plain)
だ itself is often dropped entirely at the end of a very casual statement - just (がくせい)。 can stand on its own for "I'm a student" in relaxed speech. だった, じゃない, and じゃなかった are never dropped this way; only the plain present affirmative disappears.
Don't use でした with い-adjectives
い-adjectives are the one exception: they conjugate their own past tense (drop い, add かった - see the "い-adjectives + です" grammar entry below) and never combine with でした at all. (たかい) でした is not correct Japanese, even though it looks like it should follow the same pattern.
この映画は面白かったです。
このえいがは おもしろかったです。 · Kono eiga wa omoshirokatta desu.
This movie was interesting. (correct - not でした)
今日は暑くなかったです。
きょうは あつくなかったです。 · Kyō wa atsukunakatta desu.
Today wasn't hot.
Lesson 181 min readました and ませんでした: the verb past tense
Verbs form their past tense differently from です/でした: swap ます for ました ("did X") and ません for ませんでした ("didn't do X"). This lesson covers that pattern across all three verb groups, and points to the plain-speech past forms (た-form and なかった) that cover the same ground casually.
ます → ました, ません → ませんでした
Verbs form the past tense differently from です/でした: swap ます for ました ("did X"), and ません for ませんでした ("didn't do X"). This applies the same way across all three verb groups from the "Verb types and present tense" lesson - only the stem before ます changes, never the ending.
| Dictionary form | Present (～ます) | Past (～ました) | Past negative (～ませんでした) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 食べる taberu | 食べます tabemasu | 食べました tabemashita | 食べませんでした tabemasen deshita |
| 飲む nomu | 飲みます nomimasu | 飲みました nomimashita | 飲みませんでした nomimasen deshita |
| 書く kaku | 書きます kakimasu | 書きました kakimashita | 書きませんでした kakimasen deshita |
| する suru | します shimasu | しました shimashita | しませんでした shimasen deshita |
| 来る kuru | 来ます kimasu | 来ました kimashita | 来ませんでした kimasen deshita |
昨日、映画を見ました。
きのう、えいがを みました。 · Kinō, eiga o mimashita.
I watched a movie yesterday.
今朝、朝ご飯を食べませんでした。
けさ、あさごはんを たべませんでした。 · Kesa, asagohan o tabemasen deshita.
I didn't eat breakfast this morning.
先週、友達が日本から来ました。
せんしゅう、ともだちが にほんから きました。 · Senshū, tomodachi ga Nihon kara kimashita.
Last week, a friend came from Japan.
In casual speech
ました/ませんでした are polite forms. With friends and family, verbs use their own plain past forms instead - the た-form for "did" ( (みた), "watched") and なかった for "didn't do" (なかった (たべなかった), "didn't eat") - built from the same verb stems, just with a different, plain ending in place of ました/ませんでした.
Review the ました/ませんでした grammar ruleLesson 191 min readも: saying "also" or "too"
も means "also" or "too," replacing は, が, or を on whatever shares a quality just mentioned about something else. This lesson also covers も…も… ("both...and..."), how も joins rather than replaces particles like に and で, and the very common も/も + negative pattern for "nothing"/"no one."
も replaces は, が, and を
も means "also" or "too." It takes the place of は, が, or を entirely on whichever item shares a quality just mentioned about something else - never stack も on top of one of those three particles.
私は学生です。彼も学生です。
わたしは がくせいです。かれも がくせいです。 · Watashi wa gakusei desu. Kare mo gakusei desu.
I'm a student. He's also a student. (は → も)
コーヒーが好きです。紅茶も好きです。
コーヒーが すきです。こうちゃも すきです。 · Kōhī ga suki desu. Kōcha mo suki desu.
I like coffee. I also like tea. (が → も)
りんごを食べました。バナナも食べました。
りんごを たべました。バナナも たべました。 · Ringo o tabemashita. Banana mo tabemashita.
I ate an apple. I also ate a banana. (を → も)
Other particles keep their place - も just joins them
に, で, と, から, and まで don't get replaced - も attaches right after them instead: にも, でも, とも, からも, までも.
東京に行きました。大阪にも行きました。
とうきょうに いきました。おおさかにも いきました。 · Tōkyō ni ikimashita. Ōsaka ni mo ikimashita.
I went to Tokyo. I also went to Osaka.
図書館で勉強しました。カフェでも勉強しました。
としょかんで べんきょうしました。カフェでも べんきょうしました。 · Toshokan de benkyō shimashita. Kafe de mo benkyō shimashita.
I studied at the library. I also studied at a cafe.
も…も…: both X and Y
Using も on two items in the same sentence means "both...and..." rather than just "also."
兄も姉もいます。
あにも あねも います。 · Ani mo ane mo imasu.
I have both an older brother and an older sister.
すしも天ぷらも好きです。
すしも てんぷらも すきです。 · Sushi mo tenpura mo suki desu.
I like both sushi and tempura.
も (なにも), も (だれも), どこも (dokomo) + negative: nothing, no one, nowhere
Pairing も with a question word and a negative verb produces a complete opposite - not "also," but "not...at all." This combination is extremely common in everyday speech.
今日は何も食べませんでした。
きょうは なにも たべませんでした。 · Kyō wa nani mo tabemasen deshita.
I didn't eat anything today.
誰も来ませんでした。
だれも きませんでした。 · Dare mo kimasen deshita.
No one came.
私も行きません。
わたしも いきません。 · Watashi mo ikimasen.
I'm not going either.
Lesson 201 min read (じかん): durations of time
marks a specific point on the clock ("o'clock"); adding turns it into , a duration - "hour(s)." This lesson covers that distinction, counting hours, used alone to mean "time" as a general resource, and asking how long something takes.
(a point in time) vs. (a duration)
(じ, ji) marks a specific point on the clock - "o'clock." Adding (かん, kan) turns that same idea into a stretch of time - "hour(s)," a duration rather than a moment.
三時に会いましょう。
さんじに あいましょう。 · Sanji ni aimashō.
Let's meet at 3 o'clock. (a point in time)
三時間勉強しました。
さんじかん べんきょうしました。 · Sanjikan benkyō shimashita.
I studied for three hours. (a duration)
Counting hours with
| Hours | Reading |
|---|---|
| 1時間 | いちじかんichijikan |
| 2時間 | にじかんnijikan |
| 3時間 | さんじかんsanjikan |
| 4時間 | よじかんyojikan |
| 9時間 | くじかんkujikan |
as "time" itself
On its own, without a number, also just means "time" as a general resource - something you have, don't have, or spend.
今、時間がありません。
いま、じかんが ありません。 · Ima, jikan ga arimasen.
I don't have time right now.
お時間ありますか。
おじかん ありますか。 · Ojikan arimasu ka?
Do you have time (a moment)?
How long does it take? ～かかります
かかります (kakarimasu, "it takes") pairs with to say how long something takes, and どのくらい (dono kurai, "about how much") asks the question.
どのくらい時間がかかりますか。
どのくらい じかんが かかりますか。 · Dono kurai jikan ga kakarimasu ka?
About how long does it take?
駅まで一時間かかります。
えきまで いちじかん かかります。 · Eki made ichijikan kakarimasu.
It takes one hour to get to the station.
Lesson 211 min readたくさん (takusan): a lot, many, much
たくさん describes a large quantity, whether the thing being counted is countable or not. This lesson covers both its adverb use (modifying a verb) and its たくさんの + noun form, plus how it differs from the related い-adjective .
たくさん: a lot, many, much
たくさん describes a large quantity - "a lot," "many," or "much." It works the same way regardless of whether the thing being counted is countable (books, people) or not (water, time).
本がたくさんあります。
ほんが たくさん あります。 · Hon ga takusan arimasu.
There are a lot of books.
水をたくさん飲みました。
みずを たくさん のみました。 · Mizu o takusan nomimashita.
I drank a lot of water.
たくさんの + noun
To describe a noun directly rather than a verb, add の before it: たくさんの (たくさんの ひと) ("a lot of people"), just like how な-adjectives take な before a noun.
たくさんの人が来ました。
たくさんの ひとが きました。 · Takusan no hito ga kimashita.
A lot of people came.
たくさん vs.
(おおい, ōi) is a related い-adjective meaning "numerous," but it works differently: it's the predicate itself - がです ("there are many people," literally "people are numerous") - rather than a quantity word modifying a separate verb. たくさん is more flexible and far more common in everyday speech; save for describing that a group or category is large in general.
The opposite of たくさん is (すこし, sukoshi, "a little/few") - useful to know as the other end of the same scale.
Practice writing quantity phrasesLesson 221 min readと: and, with, and reporting speech
と has two everyday jobs at this level: connecting a complete, closed list of nouns ("and," unlike や's partial list), and marking who an action is done together with ("with"). This lesson also points to と's role introducing a quote or thought, covered in its own grammar entry.
と for "and": a complete, closed list
Between nouns, と means "and" - but unlike や (which implies "and other things, among others"), と lists every item; nothing is left unmentioned.
りんごとみかんを買いました。
りんごと みかんを かいました。 · Ringo to mikan o kaimashita.
I bought apples and mandarins. (only those two things)
ペンとノートと消しゴムがあります。
ペンと ノートと けしゴムが あります。 · Pen to nōto to keshigomu ga arimasu.
I have a pen, a notebook, and an eraser.
と for "with": doing something together
Following a person (or "myself," で (ひとりで) for "alone" being the exception), と marks who an action is done together with.
友達と映画を見ました。
ともだちと えいがを みました。 · Tomodachi to eiga o mimashita.
I watched a movie with a friend.
家族と旅行しました。
かぞくと りょこうしました。 · Kazoku to ryokō shimashita.
I traveled with my family.
と for quoting or reporting what was said or thought
と has one more common job worth knowing about: marking a quote or thought before verbs like (おもいます) ("think") or ます (いいます) ("say") - このはと (このえいがは おもしろいと おもいます) ("I think this movie is interesting"). That use has its own dedicated grammar entry, linked below, since it comes with its own rules about verb form.
Review the と grammar rule in detailLesson 231 min readAdjective past tense: い-adjectives vs. な-adjectives
い-adjectives and な-adjectives handle the past tense in two completely different ways: い-adjectives conjugate their own ending ( → ), while な-adjectives never change at all and rely entirely on です/でした or だ/だった instead. This lesson covers full positive and negative past tense tables for both types, plus いい, the one irregular い-adjective.
Two adjective types, two different past-tense systems
い-adjectives (ending in い, like (たかい)) conjugate their own tense endings, the same way verbs do. な-adjectives (like , しずか) don't conjugate at all - they behave like nouns and lean entirely on です/でした, exactly as covered in the "です, でした, and じゃなかった" lesson. Telling the two apart first is what makes their past tense predictable instead of a guessing game.
い-adjectives: drop い, add the ending
Every form is built from the same base - the adjective minus its final い. Add かった for the past, くない for the negative, and くなかった for the negative past. です can follow any of these purely for politeness; it never changes the adjective's own ending.
| Dictionary form | Negative (～くない) | Past (～かった) | Past negative (～くなかった) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 高い takai | 高くない takakunai | 高かった takakatta | 高くなかった takakunakatta |
| 面白い omoshiroi | 面白くない omoshirokunai | 面白かった omoshirokatta | 面白くなかった omoshirokunakatta |
| 暑い atsui | 暑くない atsukunai | 暑かった atsukatta | 暑くなかった atsukunakatta |
| 忙しい isogashii | 忙しくない isogashikunai | 忙しかった isogashikatta | 忙しくなかった isogashikunakatta |
この映画は面白かったです。
このえいがは おもしろかったです。 · Kono eiga wa omoshirokatta desu.
This movie was interesting.
昨日は忙しくなかったです。
きのうは いそがしくなかったです。 · Kinō wa isogashikunakatta desu.
Yesterday wasn't busy.
いい is the one irregular い-adjective
いい ("good") looks like a normal い-adjective, but every conjugated form actually comes from its older reading, よい (yoi), not いい itself. Nothing else conjugates this way - treat いい as a one-word exception to memorize.
このアプリはいいです。
このアプリは いいです。 · Kono apuri wa ii desu.
This app is good. (present - the only form that uses いい)
天気はよくなかったです。
てんきは よくなかったです。 · Tenki wa yokunakatta desu.
The weather wasn't good. (not いくなかった)
映画はよかったです。
えいがは よかったです。 · Eiga wa yokatta desu.
The movie was good. (not いかった)
な-adjectives: no internal conjugation - です/でした does the work
な-adjectives never change their own form. Everything about tense and polarity comes from what follows them - です, でした, じゃありません, or じゃありませんでした in polite speech, or だ, だった, じゃない, and じゃなかった in plain speech.
| Adjective | Negative | Past | Past negative |
|---|---|---|---|
| 静か shizuka | 静かじゃない shizuka ja nai | 静かだった shizuka datta | 静かじゃなかった shizuka ja nakatta |
| 便利 benri | 便利じゃない benri ja nai | 便利だった benri datta | 便利じゃなかった benri ja nakatta |
The one rule to remember
If it ends in い, conjugate the adjective itself. If it doesn't, the adjective stays fixed and です/でした (or だ/だった in plain speech) carries all the tense and polarity information instead. Mixing the two systems up causes the two most common mistakes at this level: attaching でした directly to an い-adjective (でした, wrong) or trying to conjugate a な-adjective's own ending as if it were an い-adjective ( (べんり) かった, wrong - it should be でした/だった).
Review the い-adjectives + です grammar ruleLesson 241 min readAdjective present tense: い-adjectives vs. な-adjectives
い-adjectives and な-adjectives already work differently in the present tense, before past tense even enters the picture: an い-adjective's dictionary form already means "is X," while a な-adjective needs です to form a complete sentence at all, just like a noun does. This lesson covers the present affirmative and negative for both.
い-adjectives: the dictionary form is already present tense
An い-adjective's dictionary form doubles as its plain present affirmative - (たかい) already means "is expensive," with no copula required. です only adds politeness on top. For the negative, drop い and add くない (or くないです / the more formal くありません for politeness).
| Dictionary form (= present affirmative) | Negative (～くない) | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 高い takai | 高くない takakunai | expensive/high |
| 大きい ōkii | 大きくない ōkikunai | big |
| 新しい atarashii | 新しくない atarashikunai | new |
| 忙しい isogashii | 忙しくない isogashikunai | busy |
この本は新しいです。
このほんは あたらしいです。 · Kono hon wa atarashii desu.
This book is new.
今日は忙しくないです。
きょうは いそがしくないです。 · Kyō wa isogashikunai desu.
Today isn't busy.
な-adjectives: です does the work
な-adjectives can't stand alone the way い-adjectives can - they need です (or plain だ) to form a complete sentence, exactly like a noun does. Negate with じゃありません (or the plain じゃない).
| Adjective | Affirmative | Negative |
|---|---|---|
| 静か shizuka | 静かです shizuka desu | 静かじゃありません shizuka ja arimasen |
| 便利 benri | 便利です benri desu | 便利じゃありません benri ja arimasen |
| 元気 genki | 元気です genki desu | 元気じゃありません genki ja arimasen |
この部屋は静かです。
このへやは しずかです。 · Kono heya wa shizuka desu.
This room is quiet.
今日は元気じゃありません。
きょうは げんきじゃありません。 · Kyō wa genki ja arimasen.
I'm not feeling well today. (literally "not energetic")
Both types can also sit directly in front of the noun they describe, instead of at the end of a sentence with です - that's covered in its own lesson next.
Review the な-adjectives + です grammar ruleLesson 251 min readAdjectives modifying a noun directly
Adjectives don't only appear at the end of a sentence with です - they can also sit directly in front of the noun they describe. い-adjectives need no change at all to do this; な-adjectives insert な first, which is exactly where the "な" in "な-adjective" comes from. This lesson covers both, including their negative forms.
い-adjectives attach with no change
To describe a noun directly rather than ending a sentence with です, put the adjective right before it. い-adjectives need nothing extra - the same form used as a sentence predicate works as-is in front of a noun, negative forms included.
| Adjective + noun | Meaning |
|---|---|
| 大きい犬 ōkii inu | a big dog |
| 新しい本 atarashii hon | a new book |
| 高くない建物 takakunai tatemono | a building that isn't expensive/tall |
大きい犬がいます。
おおきい いぬが います。 · Ōkii inu ga imasu.
There's a big dog.
高くない部屋を探しています。
たかくない へやを さがしています。 · Takakunai heya o sagashite imasu.
I'm looking for a room that isn't expensive.
な-adjectives insert な before the noun
な-adjectives need な directly before the noun they modify - this is exactly where the "な" in "な-adjective" comes from. Negative attributive forms (～じゃない + noun) don't take な, since じゃない already ends in い and behaves like a plain い-adjective at that point.
| Adjective + noun | Meaning |
|---|---|
| 静かな部屋 shizuka na heya | a quiet room |
| 便利なアプリ benri na apuri | a convenient app |
| 元気じゃない子供 genki ja nai kodomo | a child who isn't energetic/well |
静かな部屋を探しています。
しずかな へやを さがしています。 · Shizuka na heya o sagashite imasu.
I'm looking for a quiet room.
便利じゃないアプリは使いません。
べんりじゃない アプリは つかいません。 · Benri ja nai apuri wa tsukaimasen.
I don't use apps that aren't convenient.
Quick check: does な belong here?
Ask whether the adjective sits directly in front of a noun, or at the end of the sentence. Directly in front of a noun and it's a な-adjective (not a negative form) → add な. Anywhere else - sentence-final, or already negative - → no な. い-adjectives never take な in either position.
Browse vocabulary to practice with more adjectivesLesson 261 min read (すき) and (きらい): saying what you like and dislike
(suki, "like") and (kirai, "dislike") are two of the most useful words for talking about yourself - and one of the first surprises for English speakers, since they're な-adjectives in Japanese, not verbs. This lesson covers their conjugation (identical to any other な-adjective), why the liked thing takes が instead of を, and the intensified /.
and are adjectives, not verbs
English "like" and "dislike" are verbs, so it's natural to expect Japanese equivalents to be verbs too - but (すき, suki) and (きらい, kirai) are actually な-adjectives, describing the thing as "likeable" or "dislikeable" rather than describing an action the speaker does. They conjugate exactly like the な-adjectives from the "Adjective present tense" and "Adjective past tense" lessons - です, じゃありません, でした, and じゃありませんでした all apply the same way.
| Form | (like) | (dislike) |
|---|---|---|
| Present affirmative | 好きです suki desu | 嫌いです kirai desu |
| Present negative | 好きじゃありません suki ja arimasen | 嫌いじゃありません kirai ja arimasen |
| Past affirmative | 好きでした suki deshita | 嫌いでした kirai deshita |
| Past negative | 好きじゃありませんでした suki ja arimasen deshita | 嫌いじゃありませんでした kirai ja arimasen deshita |
The liked thing takes が, not を
Because / describe the thing rather than an action done to it, that thing is marked with が, the same way an adjective's subject normally is - never を, even though "like coffee" feels like coffee should be a direct object in English.
わたしはコーヒーが好きです。
わたしは コーヒーが すきです。 · Watashi wa kōhī ga suki desu.
I like coffee.
納豆が嫌いです。
なっとうが きらいです。 · Nattō ga kirai desu.
I dislike nattō.
猫が好きじゃありません。
ねこが すきじゃありません。 · Neko ga suki ja arimasen.
I don't like cats.
and : really like, really dislike
Adding (だい, dai, "big") in front intensifies either word - for "love" or "really like," and for "really hate" or "can't stand." Both still conjugate exactly like / themselves.
すしが大好きです。
すしが だいすきです。 · Sushi ga daisuki desu.
I love sushi.
Describing a noun: な, な
As な-adjectives, and take な directly before a noun, exactly like な (しずかな へや) in the "Adjectives modifying a noun directly" lesson - な (すきな たべもの) ("a food I like" / "favorite food").
好きな食べ物は何ですか。
すきな たべものは なんですか。 · Suki na tabemono wa nan desu ka?
What's your favorite food?
嫌いな食べ物はありません。
きらいな たべものは ありません。 · Kirai na tabemono wa arimasen.
There's no food I dislike.
Lesson 271 min readましょう and ましょうか: let's, and shall I?
ましょう ("let's do X") turns confident when you drop the か, and questioning when you add it - ましょうか covers both offering to do something for someone ("shall I carry that?") and softly suggesting a joint action. This lesson also compares all three related invitation forms - ましょう, ましょうか, and ませんか - on one scale from most confident to most deferential.
ましょう: let's do X
Swapping a verb's ます for ましょう turns it into a confident, friendly proposal to do something together - the speaker assumes the listener is on board.
そろそろ帰りましょう。
そろそろ かえりましょう。 · Sorosoro kaerimashō.
Let's head home soon.
一緒に写真を撮りましょう。
いっしょに しゃしんを とりましょう。 · Issho ni shashin o torimashō.
Let's take a photo together.
ましょうか: shall I...? / shall we...?
Adding か turns the same form into a question, and it does two distinct jobs depending on context. Most often, it offers to do something for someone else - the speaker volunteers, and か leaves room for a "no thanks."
荷物を持ちましょうか。
にもつを もちましょうか。 · Nimotsu o mochimashō ka?
Shall I carry your bags?
窓を開けましょうか。
まどを あけましょうか。 · Mado o akemashō ka?
Shall I open the window?
The second job is a softer version of plain ましょう - suggesting a joint action while genuinely checking agreement, rather than assuming it.
少し休みましょうか。
すこし やすみましょうか。 · Sukoshi yasumimashō ka?
Shall we rest a bit?
ましょう vs. ましょうか vs. ませんか
These three related forms sit on a scale from most confident to most deferential, and mixing them up doesn't cause confusion so much as the wrong tone.
| Form | Feel | Example |
|---|---|---|
| ましょう | "Let's do X" - confident, assumes yes | ましょう。(Let's go.) |
| ましょうか | "Shall I/we do X?" - offers to help, or softly checks agreement | ましょうか。(Shall we go? / Shall I go?) |
| ませんか | "Won't you do X?" - a genuine invitation, easiest to decline | ませんか。(Would you like to go?) |
Lesson 281 min readThe て-form: connecting verbs and building other tenses
The て-form doesn't carry any tense of its own - instead, it acts as a connector, chaining actions together ("do X, and then Y") and serving as the required base for grammar patterns like てください ("please do X") and ています ("is doing X"). This lesson covers how each verb group forms it: ru-verbs simply swap る for て, while u-verbs split into five sound-change groups and irregular verbs are memorized individually, including one common exception, → .
Ru-verbs: drop る, add て
Ru-verbs form the て-form exactly the way they form every other tense: drop る and attach the new ending, て, in its place. No sound changes to worry about - the simplest group stays the simplest group.
| Dictionary form | て-form | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べる taberu | 食べて tabete | to eat |
| 見る miru | 見て mite | to see/watch |
| 起きる okiru | 起きて okite | to wake up/get up |
U-verbs: five sound-change groups
U-verbs change their final sound based on what that ending is, and the result falls into five groups. う, つ, and る all become って; む, ぶ, and ぬ all become んで; く becomes いて; ぐ becomes いで; and す becomes して. These are the same sound families that show up again in the plain past tense (た-form), so learning them here pays off twice.
| Sound change | Dictionary form | て-form | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| う・つ・る → って | 買う kau | 買って katte | to buy |
| う・つ・る → って | 待つ matsu | 待って matte | to wait |
| う・つ・る → って | 帰る kaeru | 帰って kaette | to go home |
| む・ぶ・ぬ → んで | 飲む nomu | 飲んで nonde | to drink |
| む・ぶ・ぬ → んで | 遊ぶ asobu | 遊んで asonde | to play |
| む・ぶ・ぬ → んで | 死ぬ shinu | 死んで shinde | to die |
| く → いて | 書く kaku | 書いて kaite | to write |
| ぐ → いで | 泳ぐ oyogu | 泳いで oyoide | to swim |
| す → して | 話す hanasu | 話して hanashite | to speak |
Curious why u-verbs are called Godan ("five steps") and how these endings connect to the five steps of the kana chart? Lesson 11.5 explains it, with → and → as worked examples.
Irregular verbs: する and
する and (くる) don't follow either pattern above and are simply memorized, the same way they are for every other tense.
| Dictionary form | て-form | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| する suru | して shite | to do (also every 〜する compound verb) |
| 来る kuru | 来て kite | to come |
Connecting actions: "do X, and then Y"
On its own, the て-form has no tense - it simply links to whatever comes next. Chaining several て-forms together in one sentence lists actions in the order they happen, with only the final verb carrying tense.
朝ご飯を食べて、学校に行きます。
あさごはんを たべて、がっこうに いきます。 · Asagohan o tabete, gakkō ni ikimasu.
I'll eat breakfast, and then go to school.
友達に会って、映画を見て、家に帰りました。
ともだちに あって、えいがを みて、いえに かえりました。 · Tomodachi ni atte, eiga o mite, ie ni kaerimashita.
I met a friend, watched a movie, and went home.
What the て-form builds
Beyond connecting actions, the て-form is the required base for several other grammar patterns: てください ("please do X"), ています ("is doing X" or an ongoing state), てもいいです ("may I do X"), and てはいけません ("must not do X"). Getting the て-form itself automatic for all three verb groups is what makes every one of those patterns easy later.
Review the てください grammar rule built on the て-formLesson 291 min readてください and おします: making polite requests
てください attaches ください to a verb's て-form to turn it into a polite request - "please do X." It also shows how おします asks for a thing or action using a noun. This lesson covers all three verb groups and the negative counterpart ないでください ("please don't do X"), and why that negative request builds on the ない-form rather than the て-form.
Formation: て-form + ください
てください attaches ください directly to a verb's て-form, no matter which of the three verb groups that verb belongs to - the て-form already absorbed all the group-specific sound changes, so ください itself never changes.
| Dictionary form | て-form | Request | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 書く kaku | 書いて kaite | 書いてください。 Kaite kudasai. | Please write it. |
| 食べる taberu | 食べて tabete | 食べてください。 Tabete kudasai. | Please eat. |
| 来る kuru | 来て kite | 来てください。 Kite kudasai. | Please come. |
Asking someone to do something
ください softens a request into something polite enough for a teacher, a shopkeeper, or anyone you're not on casual terms with - closer to "please do X" than a bare command.
ここに名前を書いてください。
ここに なまえを かいてください。 · Koko ni namae o kaite kudasai.
Please write your name here.
少し待ってください。
すこし まってください。 · Sukoshi matte kudasai.
Please wait a moment.
窓を開けてください。
まどを あけてください。 · Mado o akete kudasai.
Please open the window.
Another way to make a request: おします
Both てください and おします (おねがいします, onegaishimasu) can ask someone to do something. Use a verb's て-form + ください for a direct request, or a noun naming the thing or action + をおします. Do not attach おします to the て-form.
お水をお願いします。
おみずを おねがいします。 · Omizu o onegaishimasu.
Water, please.
説明してください。／説明をお願いします。
せつめいしてください。／せつめいを おねがいします。 · Setsumei shite kudasai. / Setsumei o onegaishimasu.
Please explain. (Two ways to ask for the same action.)
The negative request: ないでください
To ask someone not to do something, switch to the verb's plain negative (ない-form) and attach でください instead - ないでください, "please don't do X." This is a different base than てください: it starts from the ない-form, not the て-form.
ここで写真を撮らないでください。
ここで しゃしんを とらないでください。 · Koko de shashin o toranaide kudasai.
Please don't take photos here.
心配しないでください。
しんぱいしないでください。 · Shinpai shinaide kudasai.
Please don't worry.
Quick check: て-form or ない-form?
With ください, an affirmative request uses the verb's て-form (てください), while a negative request uses its plain negative (ないでください). おします can also request an action when that action is expressed as a noun, as in をおします.
Practice writing request phrasesLesson 301 min readてもいいです: asking and giving permission
てもいいです attaches もいいです to a verb's て-form to ask for or grant permission - "may I do X" or "you may do X." This lesson also covers なくてもいいです ("you don't have to do X"), built from the ない-form instead, and てはいけません ("must not do X") as the forbidding opposite - three forms that together cover the full spectrum from allowed to forbidden.
Asking and granting permission: てもいいです
Attaching もいいです to a verb's て-form asks or grants permission - literally "even if you do X, it's fine," in practice "you may do X." Add か to turn it into a question asking for permission; drop it to state that something is allowed.
ここに座ってもいいですか。
ここに すわってもいいですか。 · Koko ni suwatte mo ii desu ka?
May I sit here?
はい、座ってもいいです。
はい、すわってもいいです。 · Hai, suwatte mo ii desu.
Yes, you may sit.
先に帰ってもいいですか。
さきに かえってもいいですか。 · Saki ni kaette mo ii desu ka?
May I go home early?
Saying you don't have to: なくてもいいです
For "you don't have to do X," switch to the verb's plain negative (ない-form) and replace its final い with くてもいいです. This works because ない itself conjugates exactly like an い-adjective - くて is the same い-adjective て-form covered in the "Adjective past tense" lesson, just attached to ない instead of ない being replaced outright the way it is in ないでください.
今日は来なくてもいいです。
きょうは こなくてもいいです。 · Kyō wa konakutemo ii desu.
You don't have to come today.
宿題をしなくてもいいですか。
しゅくだいを しなくてもいいですか。 · Shukudai o shinakutemo ii desu ka?
Do I not have to do the homework?
The opposite: てはいけません (must not)
てはいけません attaches はいけません to the て-form to forbid an action outright - a firmer, stronger statement than a simple negative request like ないでください.
ここでたばこを吸ってはいけません。
ここで たばこを すってはいけません。 · Koko de tabako o sutte wa ikemasen.
You must not smoke here.
授業中に寝てはいけません。
じゅぎょうちゅうに ねてはいけません。 · Jugyō-chū ni nete wa ikemasen.
You must not sleep during class.
The permission spectrum
These three forms cover every point between "allowed" and "forbidden," and mixing them up changes the actual meaning, not just the tone.
| Form | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| てもいいです | You may do X - permission granted | 座ってもいいです。(You may sit.) |
| なくてもいいです | You don't have to do X - not required | 来なくてもいいです。(You don't have to come.) |
| てはいけません | You must not do X - forbidden | 吸ってはいけません。(You must not smoke.) |
Lesson 311 min readてはいけません: forbidding an action
てはいけません attaches はいけません to a verb's て-form to forbid an action outright - the direct opposite of the permission-granting てもいいです from the previous lesson. This lesson goes deeper than that overview: the casual contractions Japanese speakers actually use in speech (ちゃいけない, じゃいけない), だめ as an everyday alternative to いけません, and how a prohibition like this differs from an obligation ("must do X"), covered by a separate grammar point.
What てはいけません literally says
て-form + は + いけません breaks down as "even if you do X, [it] won't go" - は here adds emphasis to the て-form, and いけません is the negative of (いけます, "can go"). Taken together, that literal sense hardens into a flat prohibition: "you must not do X."
美術館で写真を撮ってはいけません。
びじゅつかんで しゃしんを とってはいけません。 · Bijutsukan de shashin o totte wa ikemasen.
You must not take photos in the museum.
ここで泳いではいけません。
ここで およいではいけません。 · Koko de oyoide wa ikemasen.
You must not swim here.
Casual speech: ちゃいけない and じゃいけない
In everyday speech てはいけません contracts, the same way ては shortens to ちゃ elsewhere: てはいけない becomes ちゃいけない, and verbs whose て-form ends in んで (では) contract to じゃいけない instead. This is the plain, casual register - drop いけない further to だめ (below) for the most common everyday version.
| Polite | Casual | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べてはいけません | 食べちゃいけない | must not eat |
| 飲んではいけません | 飲んじゃいけない | must not drink |
| 見てはいけません | 見ちゃいけない | must not look / watch |
だめ: the everyday alternative
Swapping いけません for だめです (or plain だめ) says the same thing in even more common, everyday language - the version most often heard from parents, teachers, and friends.
触ってはだめです。
さわってはだめです。 · Sawatte wa dame desu.
You mustn't touch it.
触っちゃだめ。
さわっちゃだめ。 · Sawatcha dame.
Don't touch that. (casual)
Prohibited vs. obligated
てはいけません isn't the only strong modal statement in Japanese - it's worth not confusing with the opposite-direction "must do X," covered separately by なければなりません.
| Form | Meaning |
|---|---|
| てはいけません | You must not do X - prohibited |
| なければなりません | You must do X - obligated (the opposite direction) |
Lesson 321 min readから: giving a reason with "because"
から attaches directly to the end of a plain or polite sentence to give a reason - "because X, Y." This lesson covers word order (the reason always comes first), how to tell this から apart from the unrelated から that means "from" after a place or time, and how to answer a "why" question with a reason on its own using からです.
から attaches straight onto the end of a sentence
から gives a reason for the clause that follows it - the reason always comes first, then から, then the result. It attaches directly after a plain or polite sentence ending without changing anything about that sentence, unlike a verb or adjective ending that has to conjugate.
頭が痛いから、薬を飲みます。
あたまが いたいから、くすりを のみます。 · Atama ga itai kara, kusuri o nomimasu.
Because I have a headache, I'll take medicine.
もう遅いですから、帰りましょう。
もう おそいですから、かえりましょう。 · Mō osoi desu kara, kaerimashō.
It's already late, so let's go home.
Two から's: "from" vs. "because"
Don't confuse this から with the から from the self-introduction lesson that means "from" after a place or time. What comes right before から tells them apart: a single noun means "from"; a complete sentence means "because."
| Use | Attaches to | Example |
|---|---|---|
| "from" (place/time) | a noun | 日本から来ました。(I came from Japan.) |
| "because" (reason) | a full sentence | 忙しいから、行きません。(Because I'm busy, I'm not going.) |
Answering "why": [reason]からです
When a reason stands on its own as the answer to a "why" question, から is required, not optional - it's what turns a bare clause into a complete answer.
どうしてですか。時間がないからです。
どうしてですか。じかんが ないからです。 · Dōshite desu ka? Jikan ga nai kara desu.
Why? Because there's no time.
Lesson 331 min readAsking and giving directions: を (みちを きく) and (おしえる)
Asking for and giving directions combines vocabulary this app hasn't covered yet - (way/road), (to turn), (to cross) - with grammar it already has: てください from four lessons ago for giving directions, and set phrases built on (to ask) and (to tell/show) for asking. This lesson covers both sides of that exchange.
を (みちを きく): asking for directions
(みち) (road/way) paired with (きく) (to ask/hear) is the set phrase for "asking for directions." A few fixed, polite phrases cover most real situations.
すみません、駅はどこですか。
すみません、えきは どこですか。 · Sumimasen, eki wa doko desu ka?
Excuse me, where is the station?
すみません、東京駅までの行き方を教えてください。
すみません、とうきょうえきまでの いきかたを おしえてください。 · Sumimasen, Tōkyō-eki made no ikikata o oshiete kudasai.
Excuse me, please tell me how to get to Tokyo Station.
道に迷いました。
みちに まよいました。 · Michi ni mayoimashita.
I'm lost. (lit. "I lost my way.")
(いきかた) is worth noticing on its own: a verb stem ( (いき), from (いく)) plus (かた) turns any verb into "the way of doing X" - is literally "the way of going."
(おしえる): telling someone the way
("to teach," but just as often "to tell" or "to show") is 's natural pair - one side asks, the other tells. Giving directions themselves builds directly on てください from four lessons ago.
| Word | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 道 | みちmichi | road / way |
| 角 | かどkado | corner |
| 信号 | しんごうshingō | traffic light |
| 曲がる | まがるmagaru | to turn |
| 渡る | わたるwataru | to cross |
| 迷う | まようmayou | to get lost |
まっすぐ行ってください。
まっすぐ いってください。 · Massugu itte kudasai.
Please go straight.
次の信号を右に曲がってください。
つぎの しんごうを みぎに まがってください。 · Tsugi no shingō o migi ni magatte kudasai.
Please turn right at the next traffic light.
橋を渡ってください。
はしを わたってください。 · Hashi o watatte kudasai.
Please cross the bridge.
を isn't marking a direct object in を (かどを まがる) or を (はしを わたる) - with motion verbs like these, を marks the space being moved through or across (the corner, the bridge), a different job than the direct object marker covered in the "Grammar basics" lesson.
Practice writing direction phrasesLesson 341 min readています / ている: ongoing action, habit, and resulting state
て-form plus います (or plain いる in casual speech) covers more than English "-ing": an action in progress, a repeated habit, or - for certain verbs like する and - the lasting state a past change left behind. This lesson covers all three meanings and the resulting-state verbs' one irregularity: ません, not いません, as the natural negative of "I know."
ています vs. ている: the same pattern, different formality
て-form + います is the polite version of this pattern; drop います to its plain form いる (the same いる from あります/います for animate things - here it works as an auxiliary after a て-form instead of standing on its own) and it becomes casual て-form + いる, no other change. This isn't a separate rule, just polite vs. plain speech applied to one pattern.
今、雨が降っています。
いま、あめが ふっています。 · Ima, ame ga futte imasu.
It's raining right now.
今、雨が降っている。
いま、あめが ふっている。 · Ima, ame ga futte iru.
It's raining right now. (casual)
Three meanings, one pattern
て-form + いる covers more ground than English "-ing" alone - which of the three it means comes entirely from context and the verb itself.
| Meaning | Example |
|---|---|
| In progress ("-ing") | をいます。(I'm reading a book.) |
| Repeated habit | 、をしています。(I study Japanese every day.) |
| Resulting state | しています。(I'm married.) |
Resulting-state verbs: why います (しっています), not ます (しります)
For verbs describing a one-time change of state - する (けっこんする) ("to marry"), (すむ) ("to live/reside"), (しる) ("to come to know") - て-form + いる describes the lasting state that change left behind, not an action still happening. います means "I know" (a current state); ます on its own would sound like a claim about the future ("I will find out"), not the present.
大阪に住んでいます。
おおさかに すんでいます。 · Ōsaka ni sunde imasu.
I live in Osaka.
彼を知っています。
かれを しっています。 · Kare o shitte imasu.
I know him.
One irregularity worth remembering: the natural negative of います is ません (しりません) ("I don't know"), not いません (しっていません) - one of the few exceptions to this pattern's otherwise regular negative (て-form + いません).
Review the ています grammar rule in detailLesson 351 min readAdjective and noun て-form: joining sentences
Verbs have their own て-form for chaining clauses together, and adjectives and nouns need an equivalent of their own since neither conjugates the way a verb does: い-adjectives drop the final い and add くて, while な-adjectives and nouns both simply add で. This lesson covers both, plus the loose sense of "because" either can carry.
い-adjectives: drop い, add くて
Verbs have their own て-form for chaining clauses together ("do X, and then Y," from the "The て-form" lesson) - adjectives and nouns need an equivalent of their own, since neither conjugates the way a verb does.
このレストランは安くて美味しいです。
このレストランは やすくて おいしいです。 · Kono resutoran wa yasukute oishii desu.
This restaurant is cheap and delicious.
この部屋は広くて明るいです。
このへやは ひろくて あかるいです。 · Kono heya wa hirokute akarui desu.
This room is spacious and bright.
な-adjectives and nouns: just add で
な-adjectives and nouns already behave alike grammatically (both lean on です rather than conjugating themselves) - here too, they share the exact same connector: で.
この公園は静かで、きれいです。
このこうえんは しずかで、きれいです。 · Kono kōen wa shizuka de, kirei desu.
This park is quiet and beautiful.
彼は学生で、毎日忙しいです。
かれは がくせいで、まいにち いそがしいです。 · Kare wa gakusei de, mainichi isogashii desu.
He's a student, and busy every day.
| Dictionary form | て-form equivalent | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 高い | て | is expensive, and ~ |
| 忙しい | て | is busy, and ~ |
| 静か | で | is quiet, and ~ |
| 学生 | で | is a student, and ~ |
A loose "because" too
Beyond plain "and," くて/で can carry a light sense of cause, similar to an unmarked から (from the "から" lesson) - softer and less explicit than actually saying から.
忙しくて、朝ごはんを食べませんでした。
いそがしくて、あさごはんを たべませんでした。 · Isogashikute, asagohan o tabemasen deshita.
I was busy, and didn't eat breakfast.
Lesson 361 min read〜に: going somewhere to do something
A verb's ます-stem plus に states the purpose of a trip - "go (somewhere) in order to do X." This lesson covers why the stem (not the dictionary form or て-form) is what に attaches to, and how and swap in for with no other change to the pattern.
ます-stem + に: going (there) in order to do X
Drop ます from a verb's polite form to get its ます-stem (from the "Verb types and present tense" lesson) - here that stem acts as a noun-like form, which is why に can attach to it at all. (いく) is by far the most common partner, giving "go (somewhere) in order to do X."
デパートへ靴を買いに行きます。
デパートへ くつを かいに いきます。 · Depāto e kutsu o kai ni ikimasu.
I'm going to the department store to buy shoes.
友達と映画を見に行きました。
ともだちと えいがを みに いきました。 · Tomodachi to eiga o mi ni ikimashita.
I went to see a movie with a friend.
Works with (くる) and (かえる) too
Swap for (くる) ("come to do X") or (かえる) ("go home to do X") and the pattern works identically - the ます-stem plus に stays exactly the same, only the destination verb changes.
迎えに来てください。
むかえに きてください。 · Mukae ni kite kudasai.
Please come pick me up.
荷物を取りに帰ります。
にもつを とりに かえります。 · Nimotsu o tori ni kaerimasu.
I'll go back home to get my luggage.
Why the stem, and not the dictionary form or て-form
に is a particle that attaches to nouns, and the ます-stem is the one verb form that doubles as one - the same stem behind (いきかた) ("way of going") from the directions lesson. Neither the plain dictionary form () nor the て-form (, いって) is noun-like enough for に to attach to here.
Review the に grammar rule in detailLesson 371 min readで (ひとりで) and で (ふたりで): counting people as a group
The "Counting things" lesson already covered the 〜 counter itself - this lesson goes further: で (ひとりで) and で (ふたりで) both carry a specific idiomatic meaning beyond their literal headcount ("alone" and "together," respectively), and ですか (なんにん かぞくですか) / ごはですか (ごかぞくは なんにんですか) are the natural ways to ask how many people are in someone's family.
で (ひとりで): "by myself," not just "one person"
The で attached here is the same means/manner で from the "Grammar basics" lesson - just applied to a headcount instead of a tool or place, stating how many people did something as a group. On its own, で (ひとりで) carries a specific idiomatic meaning: "alone" or "by myself," not merely "as a group of one."
一人で映画を見ました。
ひとりで えいがを みました。 · Hitori de eiga o mimashita.
I watched a movie by myself.
で (ふたりで): emphasizing "together," not just "two people"
で (ふたりで) carries its own nuance too - "the two of us, together" - a bit warmer than a plain headcount of two. From three people up, this extra nuance disappears and で just states the group size plainly.
二人で旅行しました。
ふたりで りょこうしました。 · Futari de ryokō shimashita.
We traveled together, the two of us.
| Phrase | Literally | Natural meaning |
|---|---|---|
| で | as one person | alone / by myself |
| で | as two people | together (the two of us) |
| で〜 | as three people | as a group of three (no special nuance) |
Asking about family size
ですか (なんにん かぞくですか) is a fixed, natural way to ask "how many people are in your family?" ごはですか (ごかぞくは なんにんですか) asks the same thing with more transparent grammar - the familiar Xは〜ですか shape, plus ご, the honorific prefix used when asking about someone else's family rather than your own.
何人家族ですか。四人家族です。
なんにんかぞくですか。よにんかぞくです。 · Nannin kazoku desu ka? Yonin kazoku desu.
How many people are in your family? There are four of us.
ご家族は何人ですか。家族は三人です。
ごかぞくは なんにんですか。かぞくは さんにんです。 · Gokazoku wa nannin desu ka? Kazoku wa sannin desu.
How many people are in your family? There are three of us.
Lesson 37.51 min readずつ: “each” and “at a time” with amounts
Add ずつ after an amount to say “each” (the same amount for everyone) or “at a time” (the same amount per step): ずつ (ひとつずつ), 二本ずつ (にほんずつ), ずつ (ひとりずつ), 二枚ずつ (にまいずつ). It builds on the counters you already know, so this lesson is short.
Put ずつ right after an amount
ずつ means “each” or “at a time.” It attaches to an amount (a number plus its counter) and says that the same amount applies again and again: ずつ (ひとつずつ) is “one each” or “one at a time.” You already know the counters from the “Counting things in Japanese” lesson (Lesson 9) and / from Lesson 37, so this lesson adds only ずつ itself.
| Amount | With ずつ | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 一つ | 一つずつ | ひとつずつ · hitotsu zutsu | one each / one at a time |
| 二本 | 二本ずつ | にほんずつ · nihon zutsu | two long things each / at a time |
| 一人 | 一人ずつ | ひとりずつ · hitori zutsu | one person each / one at a time |
| 二枚 | 二枚ずつ | にまいずつ · nimai zutsu | two flat things each / at a time |
| 少し | 少しずつ | すこしずつ · sukoshi zutsu | a little at a time |
Two meanings: “each” and “at a time”
Context decides which English phrase fits. When something is shared out among people, ずつ means “each”: everyone gets the same amount. When someone does something in repeated steps, it means “at a time”: the action is split into equal portions or turns.
友達にあめを二つずつあげました。
ともだちに あめを ふたつずつ あげました。 · Tomodachi ni ame o futatsu zutsu agemashita.
I gave each friend two candies. (each)
一人ずつ入ってください。
ひとりずつ はいって ください。 · Hitori zutsu haitte kudasai.
Please come in one at a time. (at a time)
本を一冊ずつ読みます。
ほんを いっさつずつ よみます。 · Hon o issatsu zutsu yomimasu.
I read one book at a time. (at a time)
毎週、水を二本ずつ買います。
まいしゅう、みずを にほんずつ かいます。 · Maishū, mizu o nihon zutsu kaimasu.
Every week I buy two bottles at a time.
Word order, and a trap with で
The noun keeps its own particle, and ずつ sits directly after the amount, before the verb: を一冊ずつ読みます (ほんを いっさつずつ よみます). Do not add a particle after the amount (not 一冊をずつ (いっさつをずつ)). Also keep ずつ apart from で (ひとりで) in Lesson 37: でます (ひとりで いきます) means “I go alone,” but ずつます (ひとりずつ いきます) means “they go one by one.”
何個ずつ食べますか。
なんこずつ たべますか。 · Nanko zutsu tabemasu ka.
How many do you eat at a time?
Not only counters
ずつ also follows a few quantity words. The most useful is ずつ (すこしずつ), “little by little”: 、をずつします (まいにち、かんじを すこしずつ べんきょうします) means “I study kanji a little at a time every day.” Because ずつ means the same amount each time, it is not used when the amounts differ from person to person or step to step.
Practice writing ずつ phrasesLesson 381 min readFamily vocabulary: kinship terms
Japanese has two separate words for most family members: a plain term for talking about your own family, and a more honorific お〜さん term for someone else's - and the honorific form does double duty as how you address your own family member directly. This lesson covers both sets, for immediate family (including son and daughter), grandparents, and the collective terms (りょうしん) and (きょうだい).
Two sets of words: your family vs. someone else's
Most family words come in pairs: a plain term for talking about your own family to someone else, and a separate, more honorific お〜さん term for someone else's family - the same in-group/out-group split already seen with (かぞく) vs. ご (ごかぞく) in the previous lesson, just applied to individual relatives instead of the family as a whole. (むすこ) and (むすめ) are a useful exception: the word itself stays the same, and adding さん makes the respectful form for someone else's son or daughter.
私の父は先生です。
わたしの ちちは せんせいです。 · Watashi no chichi wa sensei desu.
My father is a teacher.
田中さんのお父さんは医者です。
たなかさんの おとうさんは いしゃです。 · Tanaka-san no otōsan wa isha desu.
Mr. Tanaka's father is a doctor.
私の息子は大学生です。
わたしの むすこは だいがくせいです。 · Watashi no musuko wa daigakusei desu.
My son is a university student.
田中さんの娘さんは高校生です。
たなかさんの むすめさんは こうこうせいです。 · Tanaka-san no musume-san wa kōkōsei desu.
Mr. Tanaka's daughter is a high school student.
| Relation | Your own family | Someone else's family |
|---|---|---|
| Father | 父 (ちち, chichi) | お父さん (おとうさん, otōsan) |
| Mother | 母 (はは, haha) | お母さん (おかあさん, okāsan) |
| Older brother | 兄 (あに, ani) | お兄さん (おにいさん, onīsan) |
| Older sister | 姉 (あね, ane) | お姉さん (おねえさん, onēsan) |
| Younger brother | 弟 (おとうと, otōto) | 弟さん (おとうとさん, otōto-san) |
| Younger sister | 妹 (いもうと, imōto) | 妹さん (いもうとさん, imōto-san) |
| Son | 息子 (むすこ, musuko) | 息子さん (むすこさん, musuko-san) |
| Daughter | 娘 (むすめ, musume) | 娘さん (むすめさん, musume-san) |
Addressing vs. referring: calling your own mother (おかあさん)
The split above is about talking about family to a third person. Speaking directly to your own family member works differently: you call out to them using the honorific form, not the plain one - (おかあさん), never (はは), to actually get your mother's attention.
お母さん、ただいま！
おかあさん、ただいま！ · Okāsan, tadaima!
Mom, I'm home!
Grandparents, parents, and siblings as a group
The same own-family/someone-else's-family split continues for grandparents and for the collective terms (りょうしん) ("parents") and (きょうだい) ("siblings" - literally "older brother, younger brother" in kanji, but used generically regardless of the siblings' actual genders).
| Relation | Your own family | Someone else's family |
|---|---|---|
| Grandfather | 祖父 (そふ, sofu) | おじいさん (ojīsan) |
| Grandmother | 祖母 (そぼ, sobo) | おばあさん (obāsan) |
| Parents | 両親 (りょうしん, ryōshin) | ご両親 (ごりょうしん, go-ryōshin) |
| Siblings | 兄弟 (きょうだい, kyōdai) | ご兄弟 (ごきょうだい, go-kyōdai) |
Lesson 391 min readの (からだの ぶぶん): naming body parts
Body-part vocabulary, grouped into head/face and body/limbs, plus two grammar points it naturally leads into: describing pain with [part]がです (extending the から lesson's がから (あたまが いたいから)), and は…が… for describing one part of someone's appearance - two different "subjects" doing two different jobs in the same sentence, like はがです (かれは めが おおきいです) ("He has big eyes").
Head to toe: the core vocabulary
No new grammar here - just the words themselves, grouped into head/face and body/limbs to make them easier to hold onto.
| Part | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 頭 | あたまatama | head |
| 顔 | かおkao | face |
| 目 | めme | eye |
| 耳 | みみmimi | ear |
| 鼻 | はなhana | nose |
| 口 | くちkuchi | mouth |
| 歯 | はha | tooth |
| Part | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 首 | くびkubi | neck |
| 肩 | かたkata | shoulder |
| 腕 | うでude | arm |
| 手 | てte | hand |
| 指 | ゆびyubi | finger |
| お腹 | おなかonaka | stomach / belly |
| 背中 | せなかsenaka | back |
| 足 | あしashi | leg / foot |
| 膝 | ひざhiza | knee |
One word for two things: (あし) covers both "leg" and "foot"
Japanese doesn't split "leg" and "foot" into separate everyday words the way English does - (あし) covers the whole limb from hip to toes, with more precise anatomical terms reserved for medical contexts. (て) works loosely the same way in casual speech, occasionally stretching to cover the forearm, though (うで) is the dedicated, precise word for "arm."
Describing pain: [part]がです
(いたい) ("painful/hurts") is the natural い-adjective for this - name the part with が, then say です, the exact shape がから (あたまが いたいから) already used in the "から" lesson.
お腹が痛いです。
おなかが いたいです。 · Onaka ga itai desu.
My stomach hurts.
歯が痛いです。
はが いたいです。 · Ha ga itai desu.
My tooth hurts.
Describing appearance: は…が… for one part of someone
Body parts are exactly where Japanese's double-marked sentences show up: は sets the person as the overall topic, while が marks the specific part that actually holds the quality being described - two different jobs, on two different words, in the same sentence.
彼は目が大きいです。
かれは めが おおきいです。 · Kare wa me ga ōkii desu.
He has big eyes.
彼女は足が長いです。
かのじょは あしが ながいです。 · Kanojo wa ashi ga nagai desu.
She has long legs.
Lesson 39.51 min readWearing clothes: , はく, かぶる, かける and more
English says “wear” for everything, but Japanese picks a different verb depending on where the item goes: for the body, はく for legs and feet, かぶる for the head, かける for glasses, and する or しめる for accessories. Learn the clothing words together with the verb that goes with them.
The verb depends on the body part
English uses “wear” or “put on” for almost everything. Japanese chooses a verb by where the item goes on your body. (きる) is for clothes that cover your body, but trousers, hats and glasses each have their own verb. If you say for everything, you will be understood, but it will often sound wrong.
| Verb | Where it goes | Used with | Wearing now |
|---|---|---|---|
| (きる) | Upper body or whole body | シャツ (shirt), ジャケット (jacket), コート (coat), ワンピース (dress), 服 (ふく, clothes) | 着ています (きています) |
| はく | Legs and feet | ズボン (trousers), スカート (skirt), くつ (shoes), くつした (socks) | はいています |
| かぶる | Head | ぼうし (hat), ヘルメット (helmet) | かぶっています |
| かける | Glasses | めがね (glasses), サングラス (sunglasses) | かけています |
| する | Ties, watches, scarves, gloves | ネクタイ (tie), とけい (watch), マフラー (scarf), てぶくろ (gloves) | しています |
| しめる | Things fastened around you | ベルト (belt), ネクタイ (tie) | しめています |
Two items can take more than one verb. ネクタイ is either ネクタイをしめる (fastened) or ネクタイをする (as an accessory), and both are common. For ties, watches, scarves and gloves, する is a natural everyday choice. For other accessories, such as rings and earrings, you will also hear つける and はめる.
毎朝、スカートをはきます。
まいあさ、スカートを はきます。 · Maiasa, sukāto o hakimasu.
I put on a skirt every morning.
外は寒いから、コートを着ます。
そとは さむいから、コートを きます。 · Soto wa samui kara, kōto o kimasu.
It is cold outside, so I will put on a coat.
ぼうしをかぶって、めがねをかけます。
ぼうしを かぶって、めがねを かけます。 · Bōshi o kabutte, megane o kakemasu.
I put on a hat and glasses.
Putting on versus wearing
The ます form names the action of putting something on. To say what you are wearing right now, use the ている state from Lesson 34: コートを着ています (こーとを きています) means “I am wearing a coat,” not “I am in the middle of putting it on.” The last column of the table gives each verb's ています form; Lesson 52 uses the same forms to describe people, as in めがねをかけている.
あの人は黒いコートを着ています。
あの ひとは くろい コートを きています。 · Ano hito wa kuroi kōto o kite imasu.
That person is wearing a black coat.
田中さんはめがねをかけています。
たなかさんは めがねを かけています。 · Tanaka-san wa megane o kakete imasu.
Mr. Tanaka is wearing glasses.
今日は何を着ていますか。
きょうは なにを きて いますか。 · Kyō wa nani o kite imasu ka.
What are you wearing today?
Taking clothes off: ぬぐ
One verb covers taking off clothes, shoes and socks: ぬぐ (it can also be written 脱ぐ (ぬぐ), but that kanji is advanced, so this site uses kana). It is a Godan verb: ぬぎます, ぬいで. Taking off shoes is part of daily life in Japan: くつをぬいでください means “Please take off your shoes.” For glasses, hats and accessories Japanese usually uses other verbs, which are outside this lesson.
くつをぬいで、うちに入ります。
くつを ぬいで、うちに はいります。 · Kutsu o nuide, uchi ni hairimasu.
I take off my shoes and go into the house.
Lesson 401 min readと / と: giving an opinion in plain and polite speech
と (とおもいます) is itself polite, but the clause before it always has to be in plain form regardless - one of the few places polite and plain speech mix in the same sentence. This lesson covers that plain form across verbs, い-adjectives, and な-adjectives/nouns (which swap です for だ), then と (とおもう), the fully casual version used with friends and family.
と always follows the plain form - even in polite speech
と (とおもいます) is itself a polite ending, but everything before と has to be in plain form regardless - one of the few places polite speech and plain speech mix in the same sentence. For a present, affirmative statement, verbs and い-adjectives match their dictionary form; use the appropriate plain past or negative form in other contexts. な-adjectives and nouns swap です for だ, the same plain copula from the "です, でした, and じゃなかった" lesson.
明日、雨が降ると思います。
あした、あめが ふると おもいます。 · Ashita, ame ga furu to omoimasu.
I think it will rain tomorrow.
彼の話は面白いと思います。
かれの はなしは おもしろいと おもいます。 · Kare no hanashi wa omoshiroi to omoimasu.
I think his story is interesting.
彼は元気だと思います。
かれは げんきだと おもいます。 · Kare wa genki da to omoimasu.
I think he's doing well.
| Type | Polite (standalone) | Plain (before と) |
|---|---|---|
| Verb | 降ります (will fall/rain) | 降る |
| い-adjective | 面白いです (is interesting) | 面白い |
| な-adjective / Noun | 元気です (is well) | 元気だ |
と: the fully casual version
Drop ます from down to its own plain dictionary form, (おもう) (a regular う-verb), and the whole sentence becomes fully casual - the clause before と was already plain either way, so this is the only change needed for speaking with friends or family instead of politely.
雨が降ると思う。
あめが ふると おもう。 · Ame ga furu to omou.
I think it'll rain. (casual)
Lesson 411 min readといます: reporting what someone says
といます (といっています) reports what someone says or maintains now. It uses a plain-form clause before と, as with と in Lesson 40. Learn this present reporting viewpoint first, then compare it with the past reporting ending いました (いっていました) in the next lesson.
What someone says now
Use [speaker] は [plain-form statement] といます when reporting what someone says or maintains now. と marks what they say; います (いっています) is the polite form of いる (いっている). It can report an ongoing or repeated statement, so it does not always mean that the person is speaking at this very moment.
田中さんは来週大阪へ行くと言っています。
たなかさんは らいしゅう おおさかへ いくと いっています。 · Tanaka-san wa raishū Ōsaka e iku to itte imasu.
Tanaka says he will go to Osaka next week.
先生はテストは金曜日だと言っています。
せんせいは テストは きんようびだと いっています。 · Sensei wa tesuto wa kin'yōbi da to itte imasu.
The teacher says the test is on Friday.
Compare with いました
The words before と use plain form in an indirect report, just as before と in Lesson 40. Changing the reporting ending changes your viewpoint: います presents it as what the person says now; いました looks back on what you heard them say earlier. The tense inside the quote is separate. For example, (みた) can report something that happened yesterday even with the present reporting ending います.
| Reporting viewpoint | Japanese | English |
|---|---|---|
| What they say now | 友達は日本語が好きだと言っています。 | My friend says they like Japanese. |
| What they said earlier | 友達は日本語が好きだと言っていました。 | My friend said they like Japanese. |
山田さんは昨日映画を見たと言っています。
やまださんは きのう えいがを みたと いっています。 · Yamada-san wa kinō eiga o mita to itte imasu.
Yamada says they watched a movie yesterday.
Reporting exact words
For an exact quotation inside 「 」, keep the speaker's original words, including a polite ます-form if they used one. Do not change a direct quote to plain form just because it is followed by といます.
田中さんは「来週大阪へ行きます」と言っています。
たなかさんは「らいしゅう おおさかへ いきます」と いっています。 · Tanaka-san wa "raishū Ōsaka e ikimasu" to itte imasu.
Tanaka says, "I'll go to Osaka next week." (his exact words)
Lesson 421 min readといました: reporting what someone said
といました (といっていました) passes on something you heard another person say. Like います (いっています) in the previous lesson, it uses と after a plain-form clause, even though the reporting ending is polite. Learn how to keep the speaker's meaning and tense, including a teacher's announcement that there would be an exam tomorrow.
Passing on what someone said
Use [speaker] は [what they said in plain form] といました to tell someone what you heard another person say. と marks the reported words. いました (いっていました) comes from (いう) ("to say") and often translates simply as "said" in English, rather than the literal "was saying." This is a report of someone's earlier words, rather than what they say now as in the previous lesson. It is also different from your own opinion with と in Lesson 40.
田中さんは明日来ると言っていました。
たなかさんは あした くると いっていました。 · Tanaka-san wa ashita kuru to itte imashita.
Tanaka said he would come tomorrow.
友達は日本語が好きだと言っていました。
ともだちは にほんごが すきだと いっていました。 · Tomodachi wa nihongo ga suki da to itte imashita.
My friend said they like Japanese.
The quoted clause uses plain form
The ending いました is polite, but the indirect quote before と is plain - just like the clause before と. For example, があります (あした しけんが あります) becomes がある (あした しけんが ある) before と. Verbs can also take past or negative plain forms such as (みた) or (いかない); an い-adjective needs no です, while a な-adjective or noun changes です to だ in an affirmative statement. Keep the original meaning and tense when you change the form.
| Type | Original polite words | Plain form before と |
|---|---|---|
| Verb (present) | 明日試験があります | 明日試験がある |
| Verb (past) | 映画を見ました | 映画を見た |
| Verb (negative) | 行きません | 行かない |
| い-adjective | 忙しいです | 忙しい |
| な-adjective | 元気です | 元気だ |
| Noun | 先生です | 先生だ |
先生は明日試験があると言っていました。
せんせいは あした しけんが あると いっていました。 · Sensei wa ashita shiken ga aru to itte imashita.
The teacher said there would be an exam tomorrow.
山田さんは昨日映画を見たと言っていました。
やまださんは きのう えいがを みたと いっていました。 · Yamada-san wa kinō eiga o mita to itte imashita.
Yamada said they watched a movie yesterday.
Quoting someone's exact words
If you repeat the exact words inside Japanese quotation marks, keep the speaker's original politeness instead. So a polite ます-form can appear inside 「 」; the plain-form rule above is for reporting the content in your own sentence. You may also hear とました (といいました) for "said" - both forms can report a past statement, but といました is especially natural when passing along what someone told you earlier.
田中さんは「明日来ます」と言っていました。
たなかさんは「あした きます」と いっていました。 · Tanaka-san wa "ashita kimasu" to itte imashita.
Tanaka said, "I'll come tomorrow." (his exact words)
Lesson 431 min readないでください: please don't do it
ないでください builds a polite negative request from a verb's plain negative form. Lesson 29 introduced the pattern; now practice making it with う-verbs, る-verbs, and irregular verbs, and distinguish it from なくてもいいです (you don't have to).
Ask someone not to do something
Use a verb's plain negative (ない-form) plus でください: [verb-ない]でください means "please don't do it." Lesson 29 introduced this beside てください; here you can practice forming the negative request across verb groups. Do not attach でください to the て-form.
| Verb group | Dictionary form | Plain negative | Negative request |
|---|---|---|---|
| う-verb | 行く | 行かない | 行かないでください |
| う-verb | 話す | 話さない | 話さないでください |
| る-verb | 食べる | 食べない | 食べないでください |
| Irregular | する | しない | しないでください |
| Irregular | 来る | 来ない | 来ないでください |
ここに入らないでください。
ここに はいらないでください。 · Koko ni hairanaide kudasai.
Please don't enter here.
このボタンを押さないでください。
この ボタンを おさないでください。 · Kono botan o osanaide kudasai.
Please don't press this button.
Different from "don't have to"
でください (こないでください) asks someone not to come; てもいいです (こなくてもいいです) says they do not need to come. The second gives permission to skip an action, not a request to avoid it.
Practice writing negative requestsLesson 441 min readのがです (のが すきです): liking an activity
の turns an action into a noun-like activity, so you can say what you like doing: [dictionary-form verb]のがです. Keep the action's own particles, and learn how to express a negative preference without negating the action itself.
Make an activity the thing you like
A noun can go straight before がです, as in がです (おんがくが すきです) (I like music). For an activity, put the verb in dictionary form and add の: [dictionary-form verb]のがです. の turns the action into a noun-like phrase, and が marks that phrase as what is liked. Keep particles inside the activity, such as を in を (ほんを よむ).
本を読むのが好きです。
ほんを よむのが すきです。 · Hon o yomu no ga suki desu.
I like reading books.
私は日本語を勉強するのが好きです。
わたしは にほんごを べんきょうするのが すきです。 · Watashi wa nihongo o benkyō suru no ga suki desu.
I like studying Japanese.
A negative preference
To say that you do not like an activity, a common pattern is [activity]のはじゃないです. The activity becomes the topic with は in this negative sentence. This is different from changing the action itself to the negative: "not liking to get up early" is about your preference, not about whether you get up.
朝早く起きるのは好きじゃないです。
あさ はやく おきるのは すきじゃないです。 · Asa hayaku okiru no wa suki janai desu.
I don't like getting up early.
Lesson 451 min readです (じょうずです): being good at something
です (じょうずです) describes skill rather than enjoyment. Learn [person]は[skill]がです, how to use an activity with のがです, and a natural way to describe your own strengths.
Describe someone's skill
(じょうず) です means "is good at" a skill. Use [person]は[skill]がです: は sets the person as the topic, and が marks the skill being described. is a な-adjective, so say な (じょうずな ひと) when it comes before a noun.
田中さんは料理が上手です。
たなかさんは りょうりが じょうずです。 · Tanaka-san wa ryōri ga jōzu desu.
Tanaka is good at cooking.
妹は絵を描くのが上手です。
いもうとは えを かくのが じょうずです。 · Imōto wa e o kaku no ga jōzu desu.
My younger sister is good at drawing.
Skill is not the same as liking
をのがです (えを かくのが すきです) means you enjoy drawing; をのがです (えを かくのが じょうずです) means you draw well. Both can use an activity plus のが, but and describe different things. Calling yourself is grammatical but can sound self-congratulatory; です (とくいです) ("it's a strength of mine") is often a more natural way to describe your own skill.
私は料理が得意です。
わたしは りょうりが とくいです。 · Watashi wa ryōri ga tokui desu.
Cooking is one of my strengths.
Lesson 461 min readThe subject particle が
が marks a subject or the specific thing identified in a sentence, while は sets the topic. Use questions, existence statements, and the (すき) and (じょうず) patterns from the last two lessons to see what each particle contributes.
Mark the subject of a statement
The particle が follows a noun (or a noun-like phrase) to mark the subject of a statement: who does something, what exists, or what has a quality. It often identifies the answer to "who?" or "what?" は has a different job: it sets a topic that you then comment on. A topic and a が-marked subject can appear in the same sentence.
誰が来ましたか。田中さんが来ました。
だれが きましたか。たなかさんが きました。 · Dare ga kimashita ka. Tanaka-san ga kimashita.
Who came? Tanaka came.
庭に猫がいます。
にわに ねこが います。 · Niwa ni neko ga imasu.
There is a cat in the garden.
雨が降っています。
あめが ふっています。 · Ame ga futte imasu.
It is raining.
Connect が to the last two lessons
In はをのがです (わたしは ほんを よむのが すきです), は sets "as for me" as the topic, while をのが marks reading books as the liked activity. In さんはがです (たなかさんは りょうりが じょうずです), さんは sets the person as the topic and が marks the skill. Do not treat every English object as Japanese を: and use が for the thing liked or the skill described.
Practice writing sentences with がLesson 471 min readが (なにが): asking what is identified
が (なにが) asks what thing is identified by が: what you like, what exists, or what has a quality. Learn the usual が answer and compare it with を (なにを), which asks about the direct object of an action.
Ask "what?" with the subject particle
(なに) means "what." Use が (なにが) when you are asking which thing is the subject, the thing that exists, or the thing that has a quality. It is the question form of the が pattern from the previous lesson: the answer normally uses が too.
何が好きですか。音楽が好きです。
なにが すきですか。おんがくが すきです。 · Nani ga suki desu ka. Ongaku ga suki desu.
What do you like? I like music.
何がありますか。公園があります。
なにが ありますか。こうえんが あります。 · Nani ga arimasu ka. Kōen ga arimasu.
What is there? There is a park.
どの映画が面白いですか。この映画が面白いです。
どの えいがが おもしろいですか。この えいがが おもしろいです。 · Dono eiga ga omoshiroi desu ka. Kono eiga ga omoshiroi desu.
Which movie is interesting? This movie is interesting.
Compare が with を
Use を when is the direct object of an action: をますか (なにを たべますか) asks "What will you eat?" Use が with patterns such as です, です, あります, or a quality such as です (おもしろいです). English uses "what" in both questions, but Japanese chooses the particle from the role of the thing being asked about.
何を食べますか。うどんを食べます。
なにを たべますか。うどんを たべます。 · Nani o tabemasu ka. Udon o tabemasu.
What will you eat? I will eat udon.
Lesson 481 min readも (なにも): nothing with a negative
も (なにも) means nothing or not anything when it pairs with a negative verb or expression. Learn the required negative pattern, including もしません (なにも しません), and contrast it with affirmative か (なにか, something).
Say "nothing" or "not anything"
も (なにも) means "nothing" or "not anything" when it is used with a negative verb or negative expression. Put も after , then make the predicate negative: もません (なにも たべません). The negative is essential; もます (なにも たべます) is not the pattern for "I eat nothing."
朝ご飯は何も食べませんでした。
あさごはんは なにも たべませんでした。 · Asagohan wa nanimo tabemasen deshita.
I didn't eat anything for breakfast.
何も買いません。
なにも かいません。 · Nanimo kaimasen.
I won't buy anything.
今日は何もしません。
きょうは なにもしません。 · Kyō wa nanimo shimasen.
I won't do anything today.
Compare か and も
か (なにか) means "something" and can go with an affirmative verb: かますか (なにか たべますか) means "Will you eat something?" も pairs with a negative verb: もません means "I won't eat anything." The same contrast appears with どこか (dokoka, somewhere) and どこにも (doko ni mo, nowhere/not anywhere).
何か飲みますか。いいえ、何も飲みません。
なにか のみますか。いいえ、なにも のみません。 · Nanika nomimasu ka. Iie, nanimo nomimasen.
Will you drink something? No, I won't drink anything.
Lesson 491 min readが (だれが): asking who is identified
が (だれが) asks which person is identified by が: who is coming, who did something, or who has a quality. Learn the usual が answer and compare it with を (だれを), which asks about the person receiving an action.
Ask who is the person identified
(だれ) means "who." Use が when you are asking which person does an action, is present, or has a quality. It works like が in the previous lesson: the answer usually uses が to identify the person. This is especially natural when the answer is new information.
誰が来ますか。田中さんが来ます。
だれが きますか。たなかさんが きます。 · Dare ga kimasu ka. Tanaka-san ga kimasu.
Who is coming? Tanaka is coming.
誰が料理を作りましたか。母が作りました。
だれが りょうりを つくりましたか。ははが つくりました。 · Dare ga ryōri o tsukurimashita ka. Haha ga tsukurimashita.
Who made the food? My mother did.
誰が日本語が上手ですか。山田さんが上手です。
だれが にほんごが じょうずですか。やまださんが じょうずです。 · Dare ga nihongo ga jōzu desu ka. Yamada-san ga jōzu desu.
Who is good at Japanese? Yamada is.
Compare が with を
Use を when the person is the direct object of an action: をいますか (だれを まっていますか) asks "Who are you waiting for?" Use が when the person is doing the action or is the one being identified. English uses "who" for both, but Japanese chooses the particle from the person's role in the sentence.
誰を待っていますか。友達を待っています。
だれを まっていますか。ともだちを まっています。 · Dare o matte imasu ka. Tomodachi o matte imasu.
Who are you waiting for? I am waiting for a friend.
Lesson 501 min readもしませんでした (なにも しませんでした): I didn't do anything
もしませんでした (なにも しませんでした) combines も (なにも) with the past negative of する to say that no action happened. Learn the polite past-negative ending しませんでした, then compare it with present もしません (なにも しません).
Say that you did nothing
もしませんでした (なにも しませんでした) means "I didn't do anything" or "I did nothing." It combines も, which needs a negative predicate, with the past negative of する: しませんでした. Use it when talking about a finished time, such as yesterday, a day off, or the weekend.
週末は、何もしませんでした。家でゆっくりしました。
しゅうまつは、なにもしませんでした。いえで ゆっくりしました。 · Shūmatsu wa, nanimo shimasen deshita. Ie de yukkuri shimashita.
I didn't do anything on the weekend. I relaxed at home.
昨日は何もしませんでした。
きのうは なにもしませんでした。 · Kinō wa nanimo shimasen deshita.
I didn't do anything yesterday.
Build the past negative
する is irregular, but its polite forms are very common. To make the past negative, change しません (shimasen, do not do) to しませんでした (shimasen deshita, did not do). The past is in the verb ending; も stays the same.
| Time and polarity | Japanese | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Non-past affirmative | します | do / will do |
| Non-past negative | しません | do not / will not do |
| Past affirmative | しました | did |
| Past negative | しませんでした | did not do |
Compare present and past
はもしません (きょうは なにも しません) means "I won't do anything today" or "I don't do anything today." はもしませんでした (きのうは なにも しませんでした) looks back and says that no action happened yesterday. Choose the ending from the time you mean, then keep も with the negative verb.
今日は何もしません。昨日は何もしませんでした。
きょうは なにもしません。きのうは なにもしませんでした。 · Kyō wa nanimo shimasen. Kinō wa nanimo shimasen deshita.
I won't do anything today. I didn't do anything yesterday.
Lesson 511 min readPlain past forms: informal speech and reported quotes
Plain past forms are used in casual speech and in the clause before と in an indirect quote. This lesson converts polite past and past-negative verbs, い-adjectives, な-adjectives, and nouns to their informal forms - including ました (たべました) → た (たべた) and ませんでした (たべませんでした) → なかった (たべなかった).
Plain past forms in casual speech
Use a plain (also called short or casual) past form with close friends and family. It says the same thing as the polite past, but without ます or です. For example, ました (たべました) becomes た (たべた): both mean "ate." た is not て (たべて) - て is the separate て-form, used for links such as "eat and…" or requests.
昨日、すしを食べた。
きのう、すしを たべた。 · Kinō, sushi o tabeta.
I ate sushi yesterday. (casual)
昨日は何もしなかった。
きのうは なにもしなかった。 · Kinō wa nanimo shinakatta.
I did not do anything yesterday. (casual)
Make the past and past negative plain
Verbs use a た-form for the affirmative past and a ない-form plus かった for the negative past. An い-adjective drops the final です in informal speech, including its かった and くなかった forms. A な-adjective or noun changes でした to だった; its negative changes じゃありませんでした to じゃなかった.
| Type | Polite past | Plain past | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Verb | 食べました | 食べた | ate |
| Verb (negative) | 食べませんでした | 食べなかった | did not eat |
| い-adjective | 面白かったです | 面白かった | was interesting |
| い-adjective (negative) | 面白くなかったです | 面白くなかった | was not interesting |
| な-adjective | 静かでした | 静かだった | was quiet |
| な-adjective (negative) | 静かじゃありませんでした | 静かじゃなかった | was not quiet |
| Noun | 学生でした | 学生だった | was a student |
| Noun (negative) | 学生じゃありませんでした | 学生じゃなかった | was not a student |
Use the same forms before と
These short forms are also the ones used before と when you report the content of what someone said. The past belongs to the reported event; いました only tells you that you heard the statement earlier.
友達は昨日すしを食べたと言っていました。
ともだちは きのう すしを たべたと いっていました。 · Tomodachi wa kinō sushi o tabeta to itte imashita.
My friend said they ate sushi yesterday.
先生は試験は難しくなかったと言っていました。
せんせいは しけんは むずかしくなかったと いっていました。 · Sensei wa shiken wa muzukashikunakatta to itte imashita.
The teacher said the exam was not difficult.
Lesson 521 min readDescribing nouns: people who do, like, have, or wear
Japanese puts a verb or adjective clause before the noun it describes, without a separate word for English 'who' or 'that.' Learn how to say 'a person who likes Japanese,' 'a person who wears glasses,' and 'a person who has a cat,' plus past and negative descriptions.
Put the description before the noun
Japanese describes a noun by putting the whole describing clause directly before it. There is no separate word for English "who," "that," or "which." を (ほんを よむ ひと) literally has the order "books reads person," and means "a person who reads books." The verb or adjective stays in plain form - do not use ます or です before the noun.
| English | Japanese | Pattern |
|---|---|---|
| a person who reads books | 本を読む人 | Verb (plain form) |
| a person who likes Japanese | 日本語が好きな人 | な-adjective + な |
| a tall person | 背が高い人 | い-adjective |
| a person who wears glasses | めがねをかけている人 | Verb + ている |
| a person who has a cat | 猫を飼っている人 | Verb + ている |
Verb, い-adjective, and な-adjective patterns
A verb and an い-adjective go directly before the noun: を and が (せが たかい ひと). A な-adjective uses な: がな (にほんごが すきな ひと). This is why がです is not correct. For clothing, glasses, or something someone has, use ている to describe their current state: めがねをかけている (めがねを かけている ひと) and をいる (ねこを かっている ひと).
日本語が好きな人は誰ですか。
にほんごが すきな ひとは だれですか。 · Nihongo ga suki na hito wa dare desu ka.
Who is the person who likes Japanese?
あのめがねをかけている人は田中さんです。
あの めがねを かけている ひとは たなかさんです。 · Ano megane o kakete iru hito wa Tanaka-san desu.
That person wearing glasses is Tanaka.
猫を飼っている友達がいます。
ねこを かっている ともだちが います。 · Neko o katte iru tomodachi ga imasu.
I have a friend who has a cat.
The clause can be past or negative too
The tense and polarity stay inside the description. (きのう あった ひと) is "the person I met yesterday," and がじゃない (にほんごが すきじゃない ひと) is "a person who does not like Japanese." The noun still comes last in each phrase.
昨日会った人は先生です。
きのう あった ひとは せんせいです。 · Kinō atta hito wa sensei desu.
The person I met yesterday is a teacher.
Lesson 531 min readもう〜ました / まだ〜ていません: already and not yet
もう〜ました says an action is already complete; まだ〜ていません says it has not happened yet. Use the positive past after もう, but use the negative ている form after まだ when an action remains unfinished.
Already finished: もう〜ました
Use もう (already) with a positive past verb when an action is complete. もうをしました (もう しゅくだいを しました) means "I already did my homework." Ask もう〜ましたか to check whether something has happened by now.
もう宿題をしましたか。
もう しゅくだいを しましたか。 · Mō shukudai o shimashita ka.
Have you done your homework yet?
はい、もうしました。
はい、もう しました。 · Hai, mō shimashita.
Yes, I already did.
Not finished yet: まだ〜ていません
Use まだ (not yet) with the negative ている form when an action has not happened or finished by now. まだをしていません (まだ しゅくだいを していません) means "I have not done my homework yet." In this pattern, say まだ〜ていません, not まだ〜ません.
いいえ、まだしていません。
いいえ、まだ していません。 · Iie, mada shite imasen.
No, I have not done it yet.
スピーチコンテストは、もう始まりましたか。
スピーチコンテストは、もう はじまりましたか。 · Supīchi kontesuto wa, mō hajimarimashita ka.
Has the speech contest started already?
いいえ、まだ始まっていません。
いいえ、まだ はじまっていません。 · Iie, mada hajimatte imasen.
No, it has not started yet.
Choose the answer from the action's status
| Action | Already finished | Not finished yet |
|---|---|---|
| をします | もう宿題をしました | まだ宿題をしていません |
| ます | もう食べました | まだ食べていません |
| を | もう映画を見ました | まだ映画を見ていません |
| します | もう出発しました | まだ出発していません |
For a short answer, まだです ("not yet") is also natural. But learn the full form first so you can name the action: まだをいません (まだ えいがを みていません).
Practice asking whether an action is finishedLesson 541 min readから: from, because, and after doing
から has several common uses. It can mark where or when something starts, the source of something, a reason, or the first action in a sequence. Learn to identify the meaning from the word or clause immediately before から.
One sound, several connected meanings
から often marks a starting point, source, reason, or the action that happens first. The word before it tells you which meaning is intended. A place, time, person, or organisation usually gives the sense of "from"; a complete clause gives "because"; and a verb in て-form gives "after doing."
| Use | What comes before から | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Starting point | Place or time noun | 日本から来ました。 | I came from Japan. |
| Range | Starting time + から…まで | 9時から5時まで働きます。 | I work from 9 until 5. |
| Source / sender | Person or organisation noun | 友達からメールが来ました。 | An email came from a friend. |
| Reason | A complete clause | 忙しいから、行きません。 | Because I'm busy, I'm not going. |
| After doing | Verb て-form | 朝ご飯を食べてから学校へ行きます。 | After eating breakfast, I go to school. |
From a place, time, or person
After a place, から marks where movement begins. After a time, it marks when something starts; pair it with まで to give both ends of a range. After a person, it can mark the source of a message, gift, or information.
授業は9時からです。
じゅぎょうは くじからです。 · Jugyō wa kuji kara desu.
Class starts at 9.
母からプレゼントをもらいました。
ははから プレゼントを もらいました。 · Haha kara purezento o moraimashita.
I received a present from my mother.
Because: sentence + から
Put a complete reason before から, then say the result. This is the use from Lesson 32. In a polite sentence, です or ます can stay before から: ですから、ません (あめですから、いきません). To answer どうしてですか (dōshite desu ka), finish the reason with からです.
雨が降っていますから、家にいます。
あめが ふっていますから、いえに います。 · Ame ga futte imasu kara, ie ni imasu.
Because it is raining, I am staying home.
どうして日本語を勉強しますか。日本が好きだからです。
どうして にほんごを べんきょうしますか。にほんが すきだからです。 · Dōshite nihongo o benkyō shimasu ka? Nihon ga suki da kara desu.
Why do you study Japanese? Because I like Japan.
After doing: verb て-form + から
With a verb's て-form, から sets an order: do the first action, then do the next one. It does not mean "because" here. から (のんでから) means "after drinking," while から (のむから) means "because I will drink" (if it is a complete reason clause).
シャワーを浴びてから寝ます。
シャワーを あびてから ねます。 · Shawā o abite kara nemasu.
I will sleep after taking a shower.
Lesson 551 min readComparing two items: より, のほうが, and どちら
Japanese compares two items with より (than) and often のほうが (the one that is more). Learn how to say one thing is bigger, faster, or more expensive than another, ask which of two has a quality, and say that two things are about the same.
Compare with より
To say one item has more of a quality than another, put the item you are comparing against before より. A は B より です (おおきいです) means "A is bigger than B." Japanese does not change to a separate word like English "bigger" - より supplies the comparison.
| Pattern | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| A は B より [adjective] です | 犬は猫より大きいです。 | Dogs are bigger than cats. |
| B より A のほうが [adjective] です | 猫より犬のほうが大きいです。 | Dogs are bigger than cats. |
| A と B と、どちらが [adjective] ですか | 猫と犬と、どちらが大きいですか。 | Which is bigger, cats or dogs? |
| A のほうが [adjective] です | 犬のほうが大きいです。 | Dogs are bigger. (when the two items are clear) |
Ask which of two is more…
Use A と B と、どちらが…ですか to ask which of two items is more expensive, faster, more interesting, and so on. Answer with the winning item plus のほうが. The より part may be omitted in the answer because the question already named both items.
電車とバスと、どちらが速いですか。
でんしゃと バスと、どちらが はやいですか。 · Densha to basu to, dochira ga hayai desu ka.
Which is faster, the train or the bus?
電車のほうが速いです。
でんしゃの ほうが はやいです。 · Densha no hō ga hayai desu.
The train is faster.
Use any suitable adjective
The pattern works with い-adjectives and な-adjectives. Keep the normal adjective form: はより です (なつは ふゆより あついです) ("Summer is hotter than winter"), and はよりです (にほんごは えいごより むずかしいです) ("Japanese is more difficult than English"). If neither item is stronger, say くらいです (おなじくらいです) ("about the same").
このかばんはあのかばんより高いです。
この かばんは あの かばんより たかいです。 · Kono kaban wa ano kaban yori takai desu.
This bag is more expensive than that bag.
この二つは同じくらいです。
この ふたつは おなじ くらいです。 · Kono futatsu wa onaji kurai desu.
These two are about the same.
Lesson 561 min readComparing three or more: ので (の なかで) and (いちばん)
For three or more choices, use ので (の なかで) to name the group and (いちばん) to say which has the strongest quality. This lesson covers questions with が (なにが), が (だれが), どれが, and いつが, plus answers for facts and personal preferences.
Choose the most from a group
For three or more choices, name the group with ので (の なかで) ("among/in"), then use (いちばん) (the most) before the adjective. スポーツので、サッカーがです (すぽーつの なかで、サッカーが いちばん すきです) means "Among sports, I like soccer the most." Unlike the two-item pattern, you do not use より here.
| Question | Answer | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| スポーツの中で、何が一番好きですか。 | サッカーが一番好きです。 | What do you like most among sports? I like soccer best. |
| クラスの中で、誰が一番背が高いですか。 | 田中さんが一番背が高いです。 | Who is tallest in the class? Tanaka is tallest. |
| 一年で、いつが一番暑いですか。 | 八月が一番暑いです。 | When is hottest in the year? August is hottest. |
Choose the right question word
Use が for things or activities, が for people, どれが for a visible set of things, and いつが for time. The item that wins the comparison takes が: さんががです (たなかさんが いちばん せが たかいです).
この三つのかばんの中で、どれが一番安いですか。
この みっつの かばんの なかで、どれが いちばん やすいですか。 · Kono mittsu no kaban no naka de, dore ga ichiban yasui desu ka.
Which of these three bags is the cheapest?
青いかばんが一番安いです。
あおい かばんが いちばん やすいです。 · Aoi kaban ga ichiban yasui desu.
The blue bag is the cheapest.
Keep the adjective in its normal form
goes before the normal adjective: (いちばん おおきい), (いちばん はやい), です (いちばん べんりです), and です (いちばん すきです). It works for facts and preferences. To compare only two items, return to Lesson 55 and use より or のほうが instead.
Practice choosing the most from a groupLesson 571 min readの: the one, mine, and an understood noun
Use の to replace a noun that is already clear: の (あかいの) (the red one), なの (しずかなの) (the quiet one), and の (わたしの) (mine). Learn the different connections for い-adjectives, な-adjectives, and possessors.
Use の for an understood noun
When the noun is clear from context, の can replace it. の (あかいの) means “the red one” when everyone knows you are talking about, for example, a sweater or bag. This の is not a new object; it stands in for the omitted noun.
| Japanese | Meaning | Pattern |
|---|---|---|
| の | the red one | い-adjective + の |
| の | the big one | い-adjective + の |
| なの | the quiet one | な-adjective + な + の |
| の | mine | possessor noun + の |
い-adjectives, な-adjectives, and possessors
An い-adjective goes straight to の: の (あかいの). A な-adjective keeps な: なの (しずかなの). For possession, a noun plus の can stand alone: の (わたしの) means “mine,” and さんの (たなかさんの) means “Tanaka’s.”
どのセーターが好きですか。赤いのが好きです。
どの セーターが すきですか。あかいのが すきです。 · Dono sētā ga suki desu ka. Akai no ga suki desu.
Which sweater do you like? I like the red one.
静かなのがいいです。
しずかなのが いいです。 · Shizuka na no ga ii desu.
The quiet one is good.
これは私のです。
これは わたしのです。 · Kore wa watashi no desu.
This is mine.
Lesson 581 min readつもりです: intending to do or not do
Use dictionary form + つもりです to say what you intend to do, and ない-form + つもりです to say what you do not intend to do. It expresses a personal plan or decision.
Intend to do: dictionary form + つもりです
つもりです expresses a personal intention or plan. Attach it to a verb's dictionary form: へつもりです (にほんへ いくつもりです) means “I intend to go to Japan.” It is more deliberate than simply saying what you will do.
来年、日本へ行くつもりです。
らいねん、にほんへ いく つもりです。 · Rainen, Nihon e iku tsumori desu.
I intend to go to Japan next year.
週末は勉強するつもりです。
しゅうまつは べんきょうする つもりです。 · Shūmatsu wa benkyō suru tsumori desu.
I intend to study this weekend.
Intend not to: ない-form + つもりです
Use the plain negative before つもりです for an intention not to do something: ないつもりです (たべないつもりです) means “I do not intend to eat.” The negative is on the verb, not on つもりです.
今日はお酒を飲まないつもりです。
きょうは おさけを のまない つもりです。 · Kyō wa osake o nomanai tsumori desu.
I do not intend to drink alcohol today.
Do not confuse 〜たつもり
The past form has a different meaning: をしたつもり (しゅくだいを したつもり) means “I thought I had done my homework,” often when that belief was mistaken. This lesson’s plan/intention pattern uses the dictionary form or ない-form.
Practice writing an intentionLesson 591 min readAdjective + なる: becoming a new state
Use くなる with い-adjectives and になる with な-adjectives to say something becomes a new state.
Become with なる
なる means “become.” With an い-adjective, replace the final い with く: (さむい) becomes なる (さむくなる). With a な-adjective, add に: (じょうず) becomes になる (じょうずになる). Use 〜なりました politely to say a change has happened.
| Type | Adjective | Becomes | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| い-adjective | 寒い | 寒くなりました | became cold |
| い-adjective | 安い | 安くなりました | became cheap |
| な-adjective | 上手 | 上手になりました | became skilled |
| な-adjective | 静か | 静かになりました | became quiet |
だんだん寒くなりました。
だんだん さむく なりました。 · Dandan samuku narimashita.
It gradually became cold.
日本語が上手になりました。
にほんごが じょうずに なりました。 · Nihongo ga jōzu ni narimashita.
I became good at Japanese.
Lesson 59.51 min readNoun + になる and verb + ようになる: becoming and coming to do
Lesson 59 covered adjectives with なる. This lesson adds the other two shapes: a noun + になる (医者になります (いしゃに なります), “become a doctor”; 春になります (はるに なります), “spring arrives”) and a verb's dictionary form + ようになる (コーヒーをようになりました (こーひーを のむように なりました), “I have started drinking coffee”).
Noun + に + なる
Lesson 59 showed くなる and になる with adjectives. A noun takes exactly the same に as a な-adjective: noun + になる means “become that noun.” The に marks what you turn into, so do not use を or が there. Nouns never take く.
| Noun | With になる | Reading | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 医者 | 医者になります | いしゃに なります · isha ni narimasu | become a doctor |
| 先生 | 先生になります | せんせいに なります · sensei ni narimasu | become a teacher |
| 春 | 春になります | はるに なります · haru ni narimasu | spring arrives |
| 十時 | 十時になります | じゅうじに なります · jūji ni narimasu | it becomes ten o'clock |
兄は医者になりました。
あには いしゃに なりました。 · Ani wa isha ni narimashita.
My older brother became a doctor.
私は来年、大学生になります。
わたしは らいねん、だいがくせいに なります。 · Watashi wa rainen, daigakusei ni narimasu.
I will become a university student next year.
もうすぐ夏になります。
もうすぐ なつに なります。 · Mōsugu natsu ni narimasu.
Summer is coming soon. (Soon it will become summer.)
もう十時になりました。
もう じゅうじに なりました。 · Mō jūji ni narimashita.
It is already ten o'clock.
Verb + ようになる: coming to do
Put a verb's dictionary form before ようになる to say that a habit or way of doing something has developed: you did not do it before, and now you do. The change usually builds up over time, so it is most often said in the past: ～ようになりました means “I have come to…” or “I have started to…” For now, treat ように as one fixed piece; it does other jobs in other patterns.
毎朝、コーヒーを飲むようになりました。
まいあさ、コーヒーを のむように なりました。 · Maiasa, kōhī o nomu yō ni narimashita.
I have started drinking coffee every morning.
最近、早く起きるようになりました。
さいきん、はやく おきるように なりました。 · Saikin, hayaku okiru yō ni narimashita.
Recently I have started getting up early.
毎日、日本語を勉強するようになりました。
まいにち、にほんごを べんきょうするように なりました。 · Mainichi, nihongo o benkyō suru yō ni narimashita.
I have started studying Japanese every day.
Lesson 601 min read〜たい: saying what you want to do
Attach たい to a verb's ます-stem to say what you want to do. Learn affirmative 〜たいです and negative 〜たくないです.
Say what you want to do
Attach たい to a verb's ます-stem to say that you want to do it: ます (たべます) becomes たい (たべたい), and ます (いきます) becomes たい (いきたい). Although it describes your desire, たい conjugates like an い-adjective.
| Polite verb | Want to do | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べます | 食べたいです | want to eat |
| 行きます | 行きたいです | want to go |
| 見ます | 見たいです | want to see |
| します | したいです | want to do |
日本料理を食べたいです。
にほんりょうりを たべたいです。 · Nihon ryōri o tabetai desu.
I want to eat Japanese food.
週末、どこへ行きたいですか。
しゅうまつ、どこへ いきたいですか。 · Shūmatsu, doko e ikitai desu ka.
Where do you want to go this weekend?
Negative: たくない
Because たい behaves like an い-adjective, change its final い to くない for “do not want to”: たくないです (たべたくないです). Use たい to state your own desire; asking another person directly can sound personal, so it is often softened in real conversation.
Practice writing what you want to doLesson 611 min read〜たり〜たりします: doing things such as…
Use たり〜たりします to give representative examples of actions, rather than a complete list. Build たり from the plain past form and finish with します.
List representative actions with たり〜たりします
Use たり〜たりします to name some actions from a larger set: “do things like A and B.” Change each verb to its plain past form, then replace た／だ with たり／だり. The list is not complete, so it does not mean that these are the only actions.
| Plain past | たり form | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べた | 食べたり | eat, for example |
| 見た | 見たり | watch/see, for example |
| 読んだ | 読んだり | read, for example |
| した | したり | do, for example |
週末は映画を見たり、本を読んだりします。
しゅうまつは えいがを みたり、ほんを よんだり します。 · Shūmatsu wa eiga o mitari, hon o yondari shimasu.
On weekends, I do things like watch movies and read books.
休みの日は料理をしたり、散歩したりします。
やすみの ひは りょうりを したり、さんぽしたり します。 · Yasumi no hi wa ryōri o shitari, sanpo shitari shimasu.
On days off, I do things like cook and take walks.
Finish with します
Use します after the final たり in a polite sentence. You can use one action too—のはをりします (やすみの ひは ほんを よんだりします)—but two or more examples make the “among other things” meaning clearer. For past time, change only the final します: はをり、をりしました (きのうは えいがを みたり、ほんを よんだりしました).
Practice listing activitiesLesson 621 min read〜たことがあります: having an experience
Use a verb's plain past form + ことがあります to say you have done or experienced something before. Use たことがありません for an experience you have never had.
Talk about experience with たことがあります
Use a verb's plain past form + ことがあります to say that you have had an experience. It means “have done” or “have ever done,” not simply “did.” The time is not important; the point is that the experience happened at least once.
| Plain past | Experience expression | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べた | 食べたことがあります | have eaten |
| 行った | 行ったことがあります | have been/gone |
| 見た | 見たことがあります | have seen |
| した | したことがあります | have done |
日本料理を食べたことがあります。
にほんりょうりを たべた ことが あります。 · Nihon ryōri o tabeta koto ga arimasu.
I have eaten Japanese food.
富士山に行ったことがありますか。
ふじさんに いった ことが ありますか。 · Fujisan ni itta koto ga arimasu ka.
Have you ever been to Mount Fuji?
Negative: たことがありません
Use たことがありません to say you have never had the experience: へことがありません (にほんへ いったことが ありません) means “I have never been to Japan.” For a casual question, you will often hear たことある？ (ta koto aru?), but keep あります in polite speech.
Practice talking about experiencesLesson 631 min read〜んです: giving an explanation
Use んです after a plain form to give context or an explanation. With nouns and な-adjectives, use なんです.
Give context or an explanation with んです
Use んです (a spoken form of のです) after a plain form when you want to explain, give background, or invite an explanation. It does not simply add “because”; it makes the information relevant to the conversation.
| Word type | Plain form | Explanatory form |
|---|---|---|
| Verb | 行く | 行くんです |
| い-adjective | 高い | 高いんです |
| な-adjective | 静か | 静かなんです |
| Noun | 学生 | 学生なんです |
どうして遅れたんですか。
どうして おくれたんですか。 · Dōshite okuretan desu ka.
Why were you late? (Please explain.)
電車が遅れたんです。
でんしゃが おくれたんです。 · Densha ga okuretan desu.
The train was delayed, you see.
日本で働きたいんです。
にほんで はたらきたいんです。 · Nihon de hatarakitain desu.
I want to work in Japan—that is why I am saying this.
Ask about a situation
In questions, んですか often asks for the reason or circumstances: どうしたんですか means “What happened?” or “What is wrong?” In casual speech, んです becomes んだ, as in どうしたんだ？.
Practice explaining a situationLesson 641 min read〜すぎる: too much or too…
Use すぎる to say an action or quality is excessive. Attach it to a verb stem, an い-adjective without い, or a な-adjective.
Say “too much” with すぎる
すぎる means “to exceed” and shows that an action or quality is excessive. Attach it to a verb’s ます-stem, to an い-adjective after removing い, or directly to a な-adjective. The completed expression conjugates like a る-verb.
| Word type | Base form | Too much |
|---|---|---|
| Verb | 食べます | 食べすぎます |
| Verb | 飲みます | 飲みすぎます |
| い-adjective | 高い | 高すぎます |
| な-adjective | 静か | 静かすぎます |
昨日は食べすぎました。
きのうは たべすぎました。 · Kinō wa tabesugimashita.
I ate too much yesterday.
このかばんは高すぎます。
この かばんは たかすぎます。 · Kono kaban wa takasugimasu.
This bag is too expensive.
この部屋は静かすぎます。
この へやは しずかすぎます。 · Kono heya wa shizukasugimasu.
This room is too quiet.
Conjugate the whole expression
Once すぎる is attached, change its ending for tense and politeness: すぎました (たべすぎました) (ate too much), すぎません (たべすぎません) (do not eat too much), and すぎない (たべすぎない) (do not eat too much, casual). Do not say ますすぎる (たべますすぎる) or すぎる (たかいすぎる).
Practice saying too muchLesson 651 min readので: giving a gentle reason
Use ので after a plain clause to give a reason gently. With nouns and な-adjectives, use なので.
Give a reason gently with ので
ので gives a reason or cause, much like から, but sounds softer and more objective. It is useful when giving a polite explanation, making a request, or apologising. Attach it to a plain clause; with nouns and な-adjectives, use なので rather than だので.
| Word type | Plain form | Reason form |
|---|---|---|
| Verb | 行く | 行くので |
| い-adjective | 高い | 高いので |
| な-adjective | 静か | 静かなので |
| Noun | 学生 | 学生なので |
今日は忙しいので、行けません。
きょうは いそがしいので、いけません。 · Kyō wa isogashii node, ikemasen.
I am busy today, so I cannot go.
頭が痛いので、早く帰ります。
あたまが いたいので、はやく かえります。 · Atama ga itai node, hayaku kaerimasu.
My head hurts, so I will go home early.
A softer alternative to から
Both から and ので can mean “because.” から can sound more personal or emphatic, while ので often presents the reason more gently. For a polite request or apology, ので is often the safer choice: ちょっと用事があるので、失礼します (ちょっと ようじが あるので、しつれいします) means “I have something to take care of, so please excuse me.”
Practice giving a reasonLesson 661 min read〜たほうがいいです: giving advice
Use a verb’s past plain form + ほうがいいです to recommend an action, and the ない-form + ほうがいいです to advise against it.
Give advice with ほうがいいです
Use ほうがいいです to recommend an action or advise against one. For positive advice, use a verb’s plain past form + ほうがいいです. For negative advice, use the plain ない-form + ほうがいいです. It literally compares options: “doing this is the better option.”
| Advice | Verb form | Expression |
|---|---|---|
| You should do it | 飲んだ | 飲んだほうがいいです |
| You should not do it | 飲まない | 飲まないほうがいいです |
| You should go | 行った | 行ったほうがいいです |
| You should not stay up late | 夜更かししない | 夜更かししないほうがいいです |
風邪ですか。病院へ行ったほうがいいです。
かぜですか。びょういんへ いった ほうが いいです。 · Kaze desu ka. Byōin e itta hō ga ii desu.
Do you have a cold? You should go to the hospital.
夜はコーヒーを飲まないほうがいいです。
よるは コーヒーを のまない ほうが いいです。 · Yoru wa kōhī o nomanai hō ga ii desu.
You should not drink coffee at night.
Advice can sound direct
ほうがいいです is common, but it can be strong when you give advice to someone you do not know well. To soften it, add と: へほうがいいと (びょういんへ いったほうがいいと おもいます) (“I think you should go to the hospital”).
Practice giving adviceLesson 671 min read〜なければいけません: must / have to
Use the ない-form without い + ければいけません to say an action is required. It is a common everyday alternative to なければなりません.
Say “must” with なければいけません
Use なければいけません to say that something is necessary: “must do” or “have to do.” Start with the plain ない-form, remove its final い, then add ければいけません. Although the form begins with a negative, the whole expression means the action is required.
| Plain negative | Obligation | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べない | 食べなければいけません | must eat |
| 行かない | 行かなければいけません | must go |
| しない | しなければいけません | must do |
| 来ない | 来なければいけません | must come |
明日、早く起きなければいけません。
あした、はやく おきなければ いけません。 · Ashita, hayaku okinakereba ikemasen.
I have to get up early tomorrow.
パスポートを持って行かなければいけません。
パスポートを もって いかなければ いけません。 · Pasupōto o motte ikanakereba ikemasen.
I have to take my passport with me.
A common alternative
なければなりません has the same “must” meaning and is a little more formal. In everyday speech, なければいけません is common. Do not confuse either form with なくてもいいです, which means “do not have to.”
Practice saying what you must doLesson 681 min read〜なきゃいけません: spoken must / have to
Use なきゃいけません as a conversational contraction of なければいけません. In very casual speech, いけません is often omitted.
Shorten なければ to なきゃ
なきゃいけません is a common spoken contraction of なければいけません. It has the same “must / have to” meaning, but sounds more conversational. Build it from the plain ない-form by replacing ない with なきゃ.
| Plain negative | Spoken obligation | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 食べない | 食べなきゃいけません | must eat |
| 行かない | 行かなきゃいけません | must go |
| しない | しなきゃいけません | must do |
| 来ない | 来なきゃいけません | must come |
もう行かなきゃいけません。
もう いかなきゃ いけません。 · Mō ikanakya ikemasen.
I have to go now.
明日までに宿題をしなきゃいけません。
あしたまでに しゅくだいを しなきゃ いけません。 · Ashita made ni shukudai o shinakya ikemasen.
I have to do my homework by tomorrow.
In casual speech
Friends often omit いけません entirely when the meaning is obvious: もう (もう いかなきゃ) means “I have to go now.” Keep なければいけません or なければなりません for more formal writing and situations.
Practice spoken obligationsLesson 691 min read〜でしょうか: polite, gentle questions
Use でしょうか to ask a polite, less direct question or say “I wonder if…”. It is gentler than a direct ですか question.
Ask more softly with でしょうか
でしょうか makes a question polite and less direct. It can mean “I wonder if…” or make a request for information sound gentler. Use it when asking a stranger, a customer-service worker, or someone you want to address respectfully.
| Use | Expression | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Ask gently | 駅はどこでしょうか | Where is the station? |
| Ask “I wonder if” | 明日は晴れるでしょうか | I wonder if it will be sunny tomorrow. |
| Ask for a choice | どちらがいいでしょうか | Which would be better? |
| Ask whether something is okay | 大丈夫でしょうか | Will it be okay? |
すみません、駅はどこでしょうか。
すみません、えきは どこでしょうか。 · Sumimasen, eki wa doko deshō ka.
Excuse me, where is the station?
この電車は京都へ行くでしょうか。
この でんしゃは きょうとへ いくでしょうか。 · Kono densha wa Kyōto e iku deshō ka.
I wonder whether this train goes to Kyoto.
Compared with ですか
はどこですか (えきは どこですか) is a normal polite question. はどこでしょうか (えきは どこでしょうか) is more tentative and considerate. In casual conversation, speakers often use かな instead: はかな (あしたは はれるかな) (“I wonder if it will be sunny tomorrow”).
Practice polite questionsLesson 701 min read※ (こめじるし): noticing Japanese reference marks
※ is called 米印 (こめじるし, komejirushi), literally ‘rice mark’. It is a reference symbol that points you to a note, condition or important notice. It is part of Japanese writing conventions, not a grammatical particle or grammar rule.
※くわしくは、におください。 (※くわしくは、てんいんにおききください。) means ‘For details, please ask a member of staff.’ ※このはできません。 (※このしょうひんはへんぴんできません。) means ‘This item cannot be returned.’ In each example, read the note after the mark.
Quick check: On a sign that says ※はイメージです。 (※しゃしんはイメージです。), what is ※ doing? Answer: it introduces the notice ‘The photo is for illustrative purposes.’ It is not changing the grammar of the sentence.
An asterisk (*) can also point to extra information. Often * follows the main text and ※ starts a note, but the conventions overlap, so use the page layout to see what the symbol refers to.
N4 lessons are coming soon
The N4 course is not available yet. Continue with the N5 lessons while we prepare it.